GARDENING 


ro: 


THE  SOUTH 


OR  HOW  TO  GROV 
FRUITS  3c  VEGETABLES  fft 


BYVK.N.ViirfE' 
Revised  by  P. E.Kk-  .  .,  Pii.D. 


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DEC  ii  1983 


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Gardening  for  the  South; 


HOW  TO  GROW  ««««««««« 
VEGETABLES  AND  FRUITS. 


BY  THE  LATE 

WILLIAM    X.   WHITE, 

OF  ATHENS,  GA. 


THIRD   EDITION,   REVISED  AND   ENLARGED. 


P.  H.  MELL,   Ph.   I)., 

Professor   of  Botany    and    Geology,   Alabama    Polytechnic  Institute,   Director  of  Alabama 
Agricultural    Experiment   Station. 


WITH    MANY    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


RICHMOND.   VIRGINIA: 

B.  F.  JOHNSON  PUBLISHING  COMPANY. 
1901. 


Copyright,    1901, 
By  P.   H.   MELL,  Ph.   D. 


60NTENTS. 


What  Science  Has  Done  for  Gardening, 
Preface  to  the  First  Edition, 
Preface  to  the  Second  Edition, 
Preface  to  the  Third  Edition, 

CHAPTER  I. 
Formation  and  Management  of  Gardens  in  General, 

CHAPTER  II. 

Soils — Their  Characteristics, 

CHAPTER  III. 
The  Improvement  of  the  Soil, 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Fertilizers  and  Manures,     .... 

CHAPTER  V. 
Rotation  of  Crops,  .... 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Hot  Beds,  Cold  Frames,  Pits  and  Greenhouses, 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Packing  and  Marketing  the  Crop, 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Insects,  Fungi  and  Plant  Diseases, 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Propagation  of  Plants,        .... 

CHAPTER  X. 
Budding  and  Grafting,        .... 

CHAPTER  XL 
Pruning  and  Training,        .... 

Si 


PAGE 

13 
19 
23 

25 

27 
39 
45 
51 
80 


107 


211 


222 


4  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Transplanting,  .  s  ,  235 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
Mulching,  Shading  and  Watering,  0  t  241 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Protection  from  Frost,        .  o  *  254 

CHAPTER  XV. 
Vegetables — Varieties,  Description  and  Culture,  .  .  .       261 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
Fruits — Varieties,  Description  and  Culture,  .  456 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
Tables  and  Useful  Formulae,  ......      646 


GARDENING  FOR  THE  SOUTH. 


What  Science  Has  Done  for  Gardening. 


No  one  profession  can  stand  alone  without  the  support 
and  help  of  other  allied  callings.  The  man  who  says 
that  he  can  successfully  conduct  a  market  garden,  or  a 
farm,  without  the  assistance  of  scientific  thought  and 
investigation  is  not  well  informed  as  to  how  much  he  is 
really  dependent  on  what  science  has  done,  and  is  doing, 
for  his  profession.  If  he  says  that  he  has  no  patience 
with  "  book  farming,"  aud  attempts  to  conduct  his  busi- 
ness with  methods  and  implements  in  use  fifty  years 
ago,  and  declines  to  read  and  keep  up  with  the  progress 
of  the  times,  he  will  soon  find  to  his  sorrow  that  his 
neighbors  who  do  read  and  profit  by  what  intelligent 
investigation  is  bringing  to  light,  are  far  outstripping 
him  in  the  improvement  of  their  gardens  and  in  the 
profits  they  are  reaping  by  placing  on  the  markets  early 
vegetables  and  fruits. 

This  is  the  age  of  the  printing  press  and  thousands  of 
thoughtful,  earnest  investigators  are  sending  out  by  its 
means  vast  stores  of  valuable,  practical  information  to 
him  who  will  read  and  profit  thereby.  Practical  men 
and  women  must  read  and  learn  what  the  rest  of  the 
world  is  doing  if  they  expect  to  keep  up  with  the  pro- 
gress of  events.  The  competition  in  all  departments  of 
tilling  the  soil  is  now  so  great,  that  the  most  successful 
gardener  or  farmer  is  that  man  who  not  only  accumu- 
lates books,  but  also  is  a  diligent  reader  and  a  student 
in  his  profession,  always  looking  out  for  new  and 
improved  ideas  to  enable  him  to  produce  the  best  and 
largest  crop  possible  on  his  land  with  the  least  amount 

LIBRARY 
•  State  Coll**' 


14  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

of  money  and  expenditure  of  labor.  This  chapter  is 
not  written  for  such  wide-awake  people,  but  it  is  pre- 
pared with  the  hope  that  the  few  who  still  condemn 
"book  learning"  may  be  convinced  by  argument  and  a 
presentation  of  an  overwhelming  array  of  facts  that  they 
are  under  great  obligations  to  the  results  of  the  wTork 
and  thought  of  scientific  investigators. 

It  is  due  entirely  to  science  that  the  insect  enemies 
of  vegetables  and  fruits  have  been  so  carefully  cata- 
logued and  described,  and  remedies  discovered  for 
destroying  them  and  holding  them  in  check.  Millions  of 
dollars  have  been  saved  to  the  gardener  and  the  farmer 
in  this  one  item  of  contribution  from  science.  The  inves- 
tigations made  on  the  subject  of  plant  disease  and  the 
remedies  used  to  keep  the  plant  in  a  healthy  condition  are 
the  wrork  alone  of  scientific  brain  and  energy.  The  eradi- 
cation of  many  of  these  troubles  has  made  it  possible  for 
the  gardener  to  cultivate  certain  vegetables  and  fruits 
which  was  next  to  impossible  prior  to  the  assistance 
rendered  by  the  scientific  investigator.  What  a  boon  to 
the  cultivator  of  the  soil  is  spraying!  Yet  scientific  ex- 
perimentation developed  the  spraying  machine  and  the 
composition  of  the  ingredients  which  make  up  the  spray- 
ing mixtures. 

The  introduction  of  many  of  the  best  fruits  and  vege- 
tables is  largely  due  to  the  effort  and  forethought  of  our 
scientific  men.  The  delightful  Japan  plums,  the  Japan 
persimmons,  the  many  varieties  of  the  citrus  fruits,  and 
the  great  improvement  of  the  grape  are  well  known 
illustrations  of  this  fact. 

Chemistry,  among  many  other  aids  it  has  rendered  to 
the  gardener  and  the  farmer,  must  be  given  full  credit  for 
placing  the  science  of  fertilization  in  the  front  rank  of 
important  factors.  How  crude  and  unsatisfactory  were 
the  methods  of  supplying  plant  food  to  the  soil  until  the 


WHAT    SCIENCE    HAS    DONE    FOR    GARDENING.  15 

commercial  fertilizers  were  given  to  the  agricultural 
world,  and  the  fraud  in  the  manufacture  was  eliminated 
by  the  analytical  skill  of  the  chemist.  A  few  years  ago 
the  terms  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  were  known  and 
understood  by  a  few,  but  now  they  are  common  words 
in  the  vocabulary  of  the  most  ordinary  gardener  and  the 
most  obscure  farmer.  And  yet  this  is  the  work  of  the 
chemist,  and  to  him  only  must  the  gardener  render 
thanks  for  the  great  benefits  accruing  to  the  land  and 
plant  in  the  use  of  fertilizers. 

The  improvement  of  the  soil  by  cultivating  leguminous 
plants  in  order  to  accumulate  nitrogen  from  the  atmos- 
phere is  a  well-known  fact,  but  the  discovery  of  the  germ 
principle,  by  which  the  plants  have  the  power  to  extract 
this  nitrogen  from  the  air,  was  made  in  the  laboratory  of 
a  German  scientific  investigator.  Because  of  this  dis- 
covery it  is  now  possible  to  successfully  cultivate  peas, 
beans,  clovers  and  other  similar  plants  in  localities  where 
before  the  discovery  of  this  germ  principle  it  was  next  to 
impossible  to  secure  satisfactory  results. 

Science  has  even  stepped  in  to  instruct  on  the  subject 
of  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  much  that  is  now 
known  on  this  question  is  due  to  the  investigations  con- 
ducted at  the  State  Experiment  Stations  under  the 
direction  of  men  with  scientific  training  on  such  subjects 
as:  (1)  Why  shallow  plowing  should  be  resorted  to  in  the 
cultivation  of  certain  plants  which  develop  a  large  system 
of  surface  roots;  (2)  under  what  conditions  deep  plowing 
should  be  done,  and  (3)  why  the  land  should  not  be  plowed 
while  in  a  wet  condition;  (4)  the  value  of  rest  to  the  land, 
and  (5)  the  rotation  of  crops. 

Most  that  is  known  in  reference  to  irrigation  and  the 
value  it  is  to  those  sections  of  the  country  where  long, 
dry  seasons  are  common  must  be  credited  to  scientific 
research.    Irrigation  has  made  it  possible  to  reclaim  land 


16  GARDENING    FOE    TI1K    SOUTH. 

which  was  formerly  a  barren  waste  and  make  it  produce 
in  abundance  many  of  the  plants  beneficial  to  man. 

To  the  list  of  benefits  conferred  on  the  gardener  by 
the  scientific  student  must  be  added  the  power  to  repro- 
duce our  finest  fruits  by  grafting  and  budding,  making 
it  possible  to  perpetuate  the  tree  that  has  been  improved 
to  the  point  of  maturing  excellent  fruit  some  time  before 
fruit  will  ripen  on  the  ordinary  tree  under  the  usual 
conditions.  The  great  strides  made  in  the  selection  of 
vegetable  seeds,  ko  that  the  purest  seed  and  the  most 
healthy  plants  niay  be  secured,  must  be  credited  to  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  through  the 
painstaking  efforts  of  its  scientific  workers.  The  develop- 
ment of  new  and  improved  varieties  of  plants  by  crossing 
and  by  hybridization  could  only  be  possible  through  the 
intelligent  experiments  of  a  mind  fully  cognizant  of  the 
scientific  laws  governing  the  growth  and  the  develop- 
ment of  flowers  and  seeds.  In  this  connection  may  be 
mentioned  as  a  matter  of  illustration  the  splendid  work 
accomplished  by  T.  V.  Munson,  of  Texas,  and  others  in 
increasing  the  number  of  fine  new  grapes  and  extending 
the  list  of  this  delightful  fruit.  Within  very  recent  times 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  suc- 
ceeded in  producing  by  hybridization  hardy  orange 
plants,  so  that  it  is  now  possible  to  develop  this  fruit 
as  far  north  as  Southern  Georgia  with  safety,  and  the 
indications  seem  to  point  to  the  chance  of  growing  this 
plant  as  far  north  as  Augusta,  Georgia,  without  fear  of 
destruction  during  our  ordinary  winters.  Some  of  these 
hybrids  are  now  growing  in  the  horticultural  grounds  of 
the  Alabama  Experiment  Station  at  Auburn,  and  the 
experiment  will  be  made  during  the  coming  winter  to 
continue  the  growth  without  any  more  protection  than 
is  usually  given  to  peach  trees,  with  the  hope  that  the 
experiment  will  be  successful. 


WHAT    SCIENCE    HAS    DONE    FOK    GARDENING.  17 

In  the  matter  of  frost  warnings  to  the  market 
gardeners  it  will  be  interesting  to  know  how  much 
money  is  saved  annually  in  the  timely  warnings  from  the 
Weather  Bureau  at  Washington  of  the  approach  of  cold 
waves,  so  that  the  delicate  plants  might  be  protected; 
and  yet  this  is  the  work  from  its  inception  of  scientific 
thought  and  under  the  management  of  scientific  ob- 
servers. 

Again,  in  the  improvement  of  the  implements  used 
to-day  in  the  garden  and  on  the  farm,  how  much  of  the 
energy  of  the  tiller  is  economized  with  such  satisfactory 
results  in  the  character  of  the  work  accomplished,  and 
who  will  say  that  these  improved  machines  and  tools  are 
not  the  outcome  of  careful  training  in  scientific  methods, 
with  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  controlling  physical 
and  mechanical  laws?  In  the  evolution  of  the  modern 
plow  from  its  primitive  ancestor  the  wooden  beam;  the 
improved  Planet,  Jr.,  cultivator,  with  its  many  con- 
venient tools  when  compared  with  the  old-style  hoc 
and  rake;  these,  with  many  other  improved  tools  that 
might  be  mentioned,  should  convince  any  one  of  the  great 
assistance  science  is  rendering  the  tiller  of  the  soil  in 
simply  this  one  branch. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has 
spent  millions  of  money  in  the  past  years  for  the  benefit 
of  the  gardener  and  the  farmer.  It  is  certainly  true  that 
no  one  is  prepared  to  say  that  this  wealth  has  been 
thrown  away,  and  that  the  agriculturist  has  not  been 
vastly  benefited  b}T  its  expenditure  in  his  behalf.  The 
work  of  this  great  department  has  been  almost  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  scientific  men  of  well-known  ability;  and 
thousands  of  pages  of  practical  information  and  con- 
tributions to  knowledge  have  come  from  their  efforts, 
attesting  the  great  value  of  their  investigations  to  the 
"man  with  the  hoe." 

2 


18  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

The  State  Experiment  Stations  have  been  in  existence 
only  twelve  years,  and  yet  in  that  short  time  the  re- 
searches made  by  the  scientific  staff  have  introduced 
new  methods  of  planting  and  cultivating  which  the 
gardeners  have  found  superior  to  those  in  practice  before 
the  establishment  of  these  stations.  The  hundreds  of 
bulletins  treating  of  every  subject  relating  to  plant 
growth  and  animal  economy  are  in  growing  demand,  and 
they  are  being  read  by  thousands  of  people  interested  in 
the  farm  and  the  garden  who  uttered  anything  else  but 
a  kind  word  in  behalf  of  the  stations  when  Congress 
made  the  appropriation  for  their  maintenance  in  1887. 

The  foregoing  argument  in  defence  of  the  position  that 
science  has  rendered  incalculable  service  to  the  gardener 
is  sufficient  justification  for  the  reappearance  of  this  book, 
and  the  hope  is  entertained  that  the  work  will  receive  a 
hearty  welcome  among  those  for  whom  it  was  written. 


Preface  to  the  First  Edition. 


I  have  thought  that,  upon  a  subject  so  accordant  with 
my  tastes  as  is  horticulture,  I  might  prepare  a  work 
adapted  to  our  climate  and  useful  to  the  public.  The 
repeated  inquiries  made  of  me,  as  a  bookseller,  for  a 
practical  treatise  on  the  subject,  and  these  inquiries 
growing  more  frequent  with  the  manifest  growth  of  the 
gardening  spirit  among  us,  led  to  the  undertaking.  Yet, 
written  as  it  has  been,  in  the  intervals  of  trade  and  sub- 
jected to  its  constant  interruptions — now  advancing  but 
a  line  at  once,  again  a  page,  or  an  article — suspended 
totally  for  nearly  two  years,  then  hastily  finished,  looked 
over,  and  printed  under  circumstances  that  rendered  the 
author's  revision  of  the  proof  impossible — many  defects 
of  style,  and  errors  of  the  press,  are  manifest.  These,  if 
the  work  contain  the  information  sought,  practical  men 
will  readily  excuse  in  a  first  edition. 

To  claim  much  originality  in  a  modern  work  on  garden- 
ing would  display  in  its  author  great  ignorance  or  great 
presumption.  If  it  did  not  contain  much  that  is  found  in 
other  horticultural  works,  it  would  be  very  defective. 
Gardening  is  as  old  as  Adam,  and  what  we  know  to-day 
of  its  principles  and  operations  has  been  accumulated, 
little  by  little — the  result  of  thousands  of  experiments 
and  centuries  of  observation  and  practice.  Hence,  from 
the  gardening  literature  of  our  language,  have  been  se- 
lected, for  this  work,  those  modes  of  culture  which  consid- 
erable experience  and  observation  have  proved  adapted 
to  our  climate.  The  species  and  varieties  of  plants  found 
here  most  desirable  for  use  or  ornament  have  been  se- 
lected and  described.     This  mass  of  material  has  been 


AV  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

modified  and  increased  by  pretty  copious  garden-notes  of 
my  own.  Still,  it  has  been  my  object  to  make  a  useful 
and  reliable,  rather  than  an  original  work.  Where  an 
author's  language  suited  my  purpose,  it  was  at  once  in- 
corporated into  the  text.  If  the  expression  is  sometimes 
changed,  it  is  generally  to  make  it  more  concise.    *     *     * 

The  necessity  of  a  Southern  work  on  gardening  is  felt 
by  every  horticulturist  in  our  midst.  Our  seasons  differ 
from  those  of  the  Northern  States  in  heat  and  dryness,  as 
much  as  the  latter  do  from  those  of  England.  Treatises 
perfectly  adapted  to  their  climate  we  are  obliged  to  fol- 
low very  cautiously.  English  works  require  the  exercise 
of  a  still  greater  degree  of  judgment  iu  the  reader,  the 
climate  of  England  being  still  more  cool  and  humid. 
Again,  our  mild  winters  admit  of  garden  work  nearly 
every  day  of  the  year.  All  the  heavy  operations  of  trench- 
ing, manuring,  laying  out,  pruning,  and  planting  trees, 
shrubs,  and  hardy  ornamental  plants,  are  at  that  season 
most  conveniently  performed.  In  this  particular  aspect 
our  climate  is  much  like  that  of  the  south  of  England. 
Hence,  while  the  calendars  of  operations,  in  works  pre- 
pared for  the  Northern  States,  seldom  agree  with  our 
practice,  those  in  English  works  are  often  found  to  coin- 
cide with  it.  But  even  where  the  time  of  performing  cer- 
tain operations  is  the  same  in  both  countries,  the  long, 
dry  summers,  and  still  milder  winters  of  this  climate, 
often  render  necessary  a  peculiar  mode  of  performing 
the  same. 

We  need,  then,  works  upon  gardening  specially  adapted 
to  our  latitude  and  wants.  But  with  the  exception  of  the 
valuable  matter  scattered  through  our  agricultural  aud 
horticultural  periodicals,  Ilolmes'  "Southern  Farmer  and 
Market  Gardener,"  written  some  years  since,  and  briefly 
treating  of  the  kitchen  garden  department  merely,  is  the 
only  work  containing  anything  reliable  on  the  subject. 


PREFACE    TO    THE    FIRST    EDITION. 


•1\ 


The  chief  original  features,  then,  of  this  work  are,  that 
it  endeavors  to  give  more  or  less  information  upon  the 
whole  subject  of  gardening;  and  information,  too,  that  is 
practically  adapted  to  our  climate,  habits,  and  require- 
ments. In  the  fruit  garden  department,  especially,  a  good 
deal  of  new  matter  is  to  be  found.  Throughout  the  entire 
work  processes  are  frequently  described,  and  methods  of 
culture  given,  which  are  suited  only  to  climates  and 
seasons  like  our  own.  Those  varieties  of  plants  and  trees 
are  pointed  out  which  experience  has  proved  are  best 
adapted  to  our  orchards  and  gardens.     *     *     *     * 

Unusual  prominence  is  also  given  to  the  general  sub- 
ject of  manures,  as  they  are  the  foundation  not  only  of 
successful  gardening,  but  of  profitable  husbandry. 
Besides  the  various  works  consulted,  the  experience  of 
horticultural  friends  has  been  freely  communicated. 
Valuable  hints  have  been  derived  from  Rev.  Mr.  Johnson 
and  Mr.  Thurmond,  of  Atlanta;  Professor  J.  P.  Waddel, 
Dr.  M.  A.  Ward,  and  Dr.  James  Camak,  of  Athens;  Right 
Rev.  Bishop  Elliott,  of  Savannah;  Dr.  J.  C.  Jenkyns  and 
Mr.  Affleck,  of  Mississippi;  and  especially  from  J.  Van 
Buren,  of  Clarksville,  Georgia,  whose  successful  efforts 
to  make  known  and  diffuse  native  Southern  varieties  of 
the  apple  rendered  him  a  public  benefactor.  It  is  hoped 
we  shall  yet  see  a  work  on  fruit  trees  from  his  pen. 

If  this  treatise,  with  all  its  imperfections,  shall  in  any 
degree  increase  the  love  of  gardening  among  us;  if  it 
shall  cause  orchards  to  flourish,  shade  trees  to  embower, 
and  flowers  to  spring  up  around  any  Southern  home,  the 
author's  purpose  is  accomplished. 

Wm.  X.  White. 

Athens,  Ga.,  1856. 


Preface  to  the  Second  Edition. 


The  revised  edition  of  "Gardening  for  the  South''  was 
mainly  prepared  by  our  lamented  friend,  W.  N.  White, 
the  author  of  the  first  edition,  whose  sudden  death  left 
the  work  in  an  incomplete  state.  At  his  special  request, 
made  while  on  his  death-bed,  we  have  undertaken  to 
finish  the  work  begun  by  him,  to  the  best  of  our  ability, 
and  while  we  do  so,  we  ask  the  indulgence  of  the  reader 
to  pass  over  and  forgive  any  imperfections  he  may  detect, 
for  we  feel  conscious  of  our  inability  to  present  to  the 
public  as  perfect  and  interesting  a  work  as  would  have 
been  done  had  the  author  been  permitted  to  have 
finished  it. 

The  necessity  for  a  new  and  revised  edition  must  be 
apparent  to  every  reader,  as  the  former  edition  was  pub- 
lished in  1856;  since  which  time  the  discoveries,  improve- 
ments, and  progress  in  Agriculture  and  Horticulture  have 
been  very  great. 

Ten  years'  additional  experience  in  Agriculture  and 
Horticulture  by  the  talented  author  of  the  first  edition  is 
our  warrant  for  recommending  the  present  work  to  the 
favor  of  the  public,  as  few  men  were  more  ardently 
devoted  to  the  culture  of  the  soil  than  he  was. 

Should  opinions  and  facts  be  found  stated  in  the 
present  work  at  variance  with  those  in  the  former  edition 
it  will  be  attributed  to  the  experience  alluded  to  above, 
for  wTith  him  it  was  always  a  pleasure  to  acknowledge  an 
error  when  it  was  found  to  be  such.  Many  and  valuable 
additions  have  been  made  to  all  the  departments,  and 
more  particularly  to  the  lists  of  varieties,  both  of  vege- 


24  GARDENING    FOK   THE    SOUTH. 

tables  and  fruits,  together  with  the  improved  methods  of 
cultivation,  as  the  object  of  the  author  was  to  present  to 
the  public  a  practical  work  adapted  to  the  soil  and 
climate  of  the  Southern  States. 

J.  Van  Buren, 
Dr.  Jas.  Camak. 
Athens,  Ga.,  1868. 


t0* 


Preface  to  the  Third  Edition. 


It  has  been  thirty  years  since  the  last  edition  of  this 
important  work  was  issued,  and  such  great  changes 
have  taken  place  in  all  departments  of  horticulture 
within  this  period  that  a  new  edition  of  the  book  has  been 
long  demanded. 

Many  varieties  of  vegetables  and  fruits  now  popular  in 
the  South  were  unknown  twenty  years  ago,  and  some 
that  were  cultivated  in  those  days  have  been  supplanted 
by  other  varieties  of  superior  quality.  The  character  and 
composition  of  fertilizers  have  also  undergone  great 
changes,  and  remarkable  advancement  has  been  made 
by  the  introduction  of  the  numerous  brands  of  commer- 
cial manures.  Certain  methods  of  cultivation  also  differ- 
ing from  those  in  practice  some  years  ago  have  become 
popular,  and  are  now  in  general  use  throughout  the 
country. 

A  great  impetus  has  been  given  to  gardening  in  the 
South  by  the  many  excellent  bulletins  which  have  been 
issued  from  the  Experiment  Stations  of  the  several  States 
on  the  subjects  of  botany  and  horticulture,  so  that  the 
science  of  cultivating  the  fruits  and  vegetables  has 
become  almost  a  new  profession.  The  man  who  is  now 
guided  by  a  book  written  twenty  or  thirty  years  ago  will 
be  far  behind  the  times  in  nearly  all  departments  of 
planting  and  cultivating. 

For  these  reasons  there  has  been  a  demand  for  many 
years  on  the  part  of  the  people  of  the  South  for  a  revision 
of  White's  Gardening. 


26  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

bulletins  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations,  the 
publications  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, botanical,  horticultural  and  agricultural  magazines 
and  papers  and  standard  works  on  gardening.  Some  of 
the  illustrations  have  been  culled,  with  the  consent  of 
the  authors,  from  the  publications  of  P.  J.  Berckmans, 
L.  II.  Bailey,  G.  F.  Atkinson,  F.  V.  Coville,  H.  N.  Staines, 
R.  L.  Watts,  Peter  Henderson,  Samuel  H.  Humph,  John- 
son &  Stokes,  George  L.  Taber,  and  Vaughan  Seed  Com- 
pany. To  Professor  F.  S.  Earle,  biologist  and  horticul- 
turist of  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station,  special 
acknowledgment  is  made  for  suggestive  and  valuable 
criticisms. 

P.  H.  Mell. 
Auburn   Alabama,  January,  1901. 


GARDENING  FOR  THE  SOUTH. 


CHAPTEE    I. 

FORMATION  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  GARDENS  IN  GENERAL. 

Situation. — The  situation  of  the  flower  garden  and 
lawn  should  be  immediately  adjacent  to  the  dwelling,  in 
order  to  yield  the  highest  degree  of  pleasure.  The  most 
satisfactory  arrangement  is  to  form  the  lawn  directly  in 
front,  and  the  flower  garden  on  the  side,  sufficiently  near 
to  be  overlooked  by  the  drawing-room  windows,  while 
the  sides  of  the  dwelling,  in  part,  and  its  entire  rear,  in- 
cluding the  kitchen  and  servants'  yard,  are  sheltered  and 
concealed  by  trees.  A  dwelling  thus  embowered  in  well- 
grown  trees  is  always  regarded  with  pleas  ure.  As  neither 
the  fruit  or  kitchen  garden,  especially  the  latter,  can  be 
considered  ornamental,  they  should  not,  though  near  the 
dwelling,  be  placed  obtrusively  in  view.  Near  they  should 
be,  for  if  either  is  distant,  time  is  lost  in  watching  its 
progress;  it  is  in  danger  of  being  neglected;  and  even  if 
this  is  not  the  case,  its  choicest  products  may  gratify  the 
palate  of  any  one  besides  its  owner.  A  good  arrange- 
ment is  to  place  them  in  immediate  connection  with  the 
pleasure-ground,  proceeding  from  the  shrubbery  to  the 
fruit  department,  and  thence  to  the  kitchen  garden.  The 
latter  should  also  have  an  independent  approach.  It 
should  be  near  the  stables,  in  order  that  it  may  be 
copiously  replenished  with  manure  without  too  much 
labor. 

Much,  however,  depends  upon  the  soil.     The  best  at 


28  GARDENING  FOR  THE   SOUTH. 

command,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  dwelling,  should  bo 
chosen.  Proximity  to  water  is  also  highly  important, 
especially  if  it  can  be  readily  employed  for  irrigation. 
Low  situations  are  more  liable  to  late  and  early  frosts, 
but  their  abundant  moisture  renders  them  desirable  for 
summer  crops.  A  diversity  of  soils  and  exposures  in  the 
same  inclosure  is  desirable. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  productiveness  of  the 
kitchen  garden  be  not  diminished  by  the  proximity  of 
large  trees,  which  are  injurious  by  their  drip  to  all  plants 
beneath  them,  and  by  their  shade  and  extended  roots  to 
those  more  remote.  The  small,  fibrous  roots  of  trees 
extend  far  beyond  their  branches,  and  one  is  not  safe 
from  these  devourers  much  short  of  the  length  of  the 
stem  which  they  nourish.  If  trees  exist  too  valuable  to 
be  removed,  dig  a  deep  trench  near  them,  and  cut  off  all 
roots  that  extend  into  it.  This  will  probably  relieve  the 
adjacent  crops  from  their  injurious  effects. 

AsrECT  and  Inclination. — A  light  exposure  to  the 
south  is  generally  to  be  recommended.  Gardeners  take 
pride  in  having  early  crops,  and  this  compensates  in  some 
measure  for  their  shorter  duration  in  such  an  exposure. 
A  northeastern  aspect  is  to  be  avoided,  as  our  worst 
storms  are  from  that  direction.  A  northwestern  exposure, 
though  cold  and  late,  is  less  liable  to  injury  from  late  and 
early  frosts,  as  vegetation  in  such  situations  is  sheltered 
somewhat  from  the  rising  sun,  and  does  not  suffer  so 
much  if  it  becomes  slightly  frozen.  It  is  not  the  frost  that 
injures  plants  so  much  as  the  direct  heat  of  the  sun  fall- 
ing upon  the  frozen  leaves  and  blossoms.  Hence  an 
easterly  aspect  is  generally  objectionable  for  tender 
plants. 

Cabbage,  cauliflower,  strawberries,  spinach,  lettuce, 
and  Other  salads  are  much  more  easily  brought  to  perfec- 
tion in  a  northern  aspect.     Many  of  these  run  up  to  seed 


FORMATION  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  GARDENS.         SV 

immediately  if  exposed  to  the  full  sum  Of  fruit  trees  the 
apple  succeeds  well  ou  a  northern  slope.  The  soil,  too,  is 
usually  richer,  and  will  retain  its  fertility  longer,  otl^er 
things  being  equal,  in  such  an  exposure.  It  is  a  great 
advantage,  if  the  garden  slope  at  all,  to  have  it  slope  in 
more  than  one  direction,  thus  giving  a  choice  of  exposure, 
and  generall}7  also  of  soil,  as  it  is  thereto  adapted  to  both 
late  and  early  crops.  But  when  the  drainage  is  good,  a 
level  is  to  be  preferred,  as  by  the  aid  of  the  fences  any 
desired  exposure  can  be  obtained  for  particular  plants. 
Indeed,  in  southern  climates  nothing  after  quality  is  more 
to  be  regarded  than  the  inclination  of  the  soil. 

Whatever  be  the  situation  or  aspect,  a  garden  must  be 
as  level  as  possible.  Any  considerable  inclination  in  a 
southern  latitude  subjects  the  richest  portion  of  the  soil 
to  the  danger  of  being  washed  away  by  its  violent  storms. 
In  the  rich,  mellow  soil  of  a  garden  cultivated  as  it  should 
be,  if  there  be  much  perceptible  slope,  a  single  storm  will 
often  cause  a  loss  of  manure  and  labor  that  will  require 
considerable  expense  to  repair.  If  the  ground  is  not  level 
at  first,  it  is  necessary  to  resort  to  hillside  ditching  or  to 
throw  it  at  once  into  terraces  of  convenient  breadth.  To 
do  this  the  eye  cannot  be  trusted;  a  levelling  instrument 
is  required.  The  steeps  of  these  can  be  clothed  with 
Kentucky  or  Texas  blue  grass,  or  strawrberry  plants,  to 
prevent  them  from  washing. 

Each  terrace  must  be  so  raised  just  at  its  edge,  that  it 
will  retain  all  the  water  which  falls  upon  it,  permitting 
none  to  flow  over  even  in  the  heaviest  storms.  Any  excess 
of  water  should  be  carried  off  by  proper  underdrains,  if 
needed,  and  not  suffered  to  run  off  the  surface.  Surface 
ditches  are  a  poor  substitute.  Terracing  is  not  very 
expensive.  The  horizontal  line  is  first  determined  with  a 
level  and  staked  off.  A  few  turns  of  the  plow  are  made 
on  the  hillside   just   below    the   stakes,  and   the    earth 


30  GARDENING  FOK  THE   SOUTH. 

thrown  up  with  a  shovel  to  the  staked  line.  If  more  earth 
is  required,  the  plowing  and  shovelling  must  be  repeated 
until  a  sufficient  bank  is  formed  to  retain  the  water. 
During  the  first  year,  occasional  breaks  in  the  bank  may 
happen  from  violent  storms,  but  if  well  repaired,  after 
the  banks  become  settled,  they  will  rarely  be  broken  over 
by  the  accumulation  of  water,  particularly  if  proper 
underdrains  or  surface  ditches  are  provided. 

Size. — A  garden  should  be  proportioned  to  the  size  of 
the  family,  and  their  partiality  for  its  different  products. 
A  small  garden  with  a  suitable  rotation  of  crops,  and  well 
manured  and  cultivated,  will  yield  more  pleasure  and 
profit  than  an  ordinary  one  of  three  times  its  size.  An 
active,  industrious  hand  can  take  care  of  an  acre,  pro- 
vided with  necessary  hot-beds,  cold-frames,  etc.,  keeping- 
it  in  perfect  neatness  and  condition;  or  if  the  plow  and 
cultivator  be  brought  into  requisition,  as  they  should  be 
in  large  gardens,  four  times  that  amount  can  be  under 
his  care,  provided  there  is  not  much  under  glass. 

If  but  little  room  can  be  allowed  near  the  house,  cab- 
bages, carrots,  turnips,  potatoes,  and  the  common  crops, 
can  be  grown  in  the  field,  if  well  enriched,  and  be  culti- 
vated mainly  with  the  plow.  The  fruit  garden  should  be 
in  a  separate  department,  as  the  shade  of  the  trees  is 
very  injurious,  and  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil  by  their 
roots  still  more  so.  Moreover,  the  heavy  manuring  re- 
quired for  the  vegetables  will  not  do  so  well  for  fruit 
culture.  The  trees  will  also  be  in  the  way  of  the  cultiva- 
tors used  in  working  the  vegetables.  Dwarf  pears  upon 
the  quince  stock  are  the  least  hurtful,  and  may  be  ad- 
mitted into  the  vegetable  department  along  the  walks. 

Form. — The  form  will  often  depend  upon  the  situation 
of  the  garden  or  the  inclination  of  the  ground.  When 
a  matter  of  choice,  a  square  or  parallelogram  is  most 
convenient  for  laying  out  the  walks  and  beds.  A  parallelo- 


FORMATION   AND   MANAGEMENT    OF   GARDENS. 


Ml 


gram  extending  from  east  to  west  gives  a  long  south  wall 
for  shading  plants  in  summer,  and  a  long,  sheltered  bor- 


Fig.  1 — Garden  Plan. 

der  for  forwarding  early  crops.  An  oblong  shape  has  the 
further  advantage  of  giving  longer  rows  for  the  plow  or 
cultivator. 


32  GARDENING   FOK   THE   SOUTH. 

Laying  Out. — A  convenient  plan  is  given  in  Figure  1. 
The  borders  aa  should  be  amply  wide,  in  large  gardens 
as  much  as  twelve  feet.  The  space  b  is  laid  out  for  the 
asparagus  bed;  c  the  cold-frames;  (/  the  hot-beds  (in  those 
sections  of  the  South  where  needed);  e  the  tool-house; 
//  may  bo  used  for  grapes,  an  arbor  or  a  fountain  as  de- 
sired. The  remainder  of  the  space  is  taken  up  with  walks 
and  the  plots  //.  The  walks  next  the  boundaries  should 
not  be  less  than  four  and  a  half  feet  in  width.  The  long 
central  walk  should  be  at  least  five  or  six  feet  wride,  so  as 
to  admit  a  cart.  In  this  case  the  main  walk  should  pro- 
ceed, as  in  the  figure,  from  the  entrance  to  near  the  far- 
ther border,  wThere  a  portion  should.be  taken  off. of  the 
adjacent  plots  to  form  a  circular  turning  place  for  the 
cart  and  other  vehicles  brought  into  the  garden.  Plows 
are  used  so  much  in  the  cultivation  of  the  garden  that 
it  is  best  to  make  the  plots  //  without  the  usual  cross 
walks.  In  this  case  the  borders  should  be  made  of  suffi- 
cient width  to  give  room  enough  for  all  those  vegetables 
which  will  not  permit  cultivation  with  the  plow.  Where 
only  the  spade  and  hoe  are  used,  in  quite  small  gardens, 
the  plots  ff  may  be  subdivided  into  smaller  ones  by  walks 
three  to  four  and  a  half  feet  wide,  extending  from  the 
borders  to  the  main  walk;  and  a  portion  of  these  plots 
should  be  laid  out  each  year  in  beds  four  feet  wide  for 
onions,  beets,  carrots,  etc.  The  earth  should  be  dug  out  of 
the  main  walks  four  inches  deep  and  spread  evenly  on 
each  side  over  the  adjacent  ground.  These  walks  may  be 
covered  with  gravel,  so  that  they  will  be  kept  dry  and 
attractive;  or  fresh  tan-bark,  if  the  garden  is  located 
•  convenient  to  a  tanning  establishment,  may  be  used  in- 
stead of  the  gravel.  The  bark  will  keep  out  the  weeds 
for  two  years,  when  it  should  be  used  as  a  dressing  for 
the  strawberry  beds,  and  its  place  filled  with  a  fresh  sup- 


FORMATION    AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    GARDENS. 


33 


ply.    No  more  alleys  and  walks  should  be  made  than  are 
required  for  convenience  in  the  gardening  operations. 

Figure  2  is  another  design  for  a  vegetable  garden  with 
the  fruit  orchard  and  ornamental  grounds  attached.  This 
plan  was  adapted  for  this  book  by  the  permission  of  the 
editor  of  "American  Garden." 


7 


^ 


VE5ETAU.E       C,ARJfN 


v    / 


Fig.  2 — General  Plan  of  Grounds.     Adapted  from  "American 
Garden,"  July,  1894. 

Box  is  the  best  edging  wherever  it  succeeds,  which  it 
does  admirably  throughout  most  of  the  South.  All  main 
walks  should  be  wide  enough  for  two  persons  to  walk 
abreast,  for  which  not  less  than  four  and  a  half  feet  are 
required. 

Planting  vegetables  for  market  requires  a  slight 
3 


34: 


GARDENING    FOR   THE 


alteration  in  the  plan  proposed  for  the  home  supply.  In 
this  ease,  of  course,  the  planting  should  be  on  a  large 
scale,  and   the  vegetables  should   be  arranged  in   long 

rows  or  drills,  so  as  to  permit  of  cultivation  with  the 
horse  and  plow.  There  is  not  much  attention  paid  to 
laying  out  walks  and  dividing  the  land  up  into  systematic 
and  permanent  plots,  as  in  the  case  of  the  home  garden, 
but  vegetables  of  the  same  kind  are  planted  together  in 
the  most  convenient  form  for  easy  cultivation  and  har- 
vesting. In  all  other  respects,  however,  the  rules  govern- 
ing one  apply  Avith  equal  force  to  the  other  method  of 
gardening.  In  harvesting  and  preparing  the  vegetables 
for  market  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  chapter  devoted 
to  that  subject. 

Fencing. — The  objects  of  fencing  are  to  procure  shelter 
for  delicate  plants  from  cold  winds,  also  shade  for  those 
that  require  it,  and,  above  all,  to  keep  out  of  the  garden 
intruders  of  all  kinds,  that  the  owner  may  enjoy  its  fruits 
without  molestation.  A  high,  close  board  fence,  or  a  stone 
or  brick  wall,  tolerably  answers  the  purpose;  but  the  only 
thing  to  be  relied  on  is  a  living  hedge.  The  ( )sage  <  ►range, 
the  Pyracanth,  the  Cherokee  and  single  White  Macartney 
roses  thrive  in  the  South,  and  are  all  good  for  this  pur- 
pose. Osage  Orange  plants  may  be  raised  from  seed,  or 
bought  at  the  nurseries.  The  Fyraeanth,  or  Evergreen 
Thorn  (Cratoegus  pyrapantha),  will  make  a  hedge  as  effect- 
ual as  the  Osage  Orange,  and,  as  it  is  an  evergreen,  is 
much  the  more  desirable.  The  blossoms  in  spring  are 
very  showy,  and  it  is  covered  in  winter  with  bright  scarlet 
berries,  and  hence  it  is  often  called  the  Burning-bush. 
It  grows  freely  from  cuttings  in  sandy  soil,  but  these 
cuttings  should  remain  in  the  uursery-bed  a  year,  to 
become  well  rooted  before  use.  Citrus  trifoliata,  or  Japan 
Hardy  Lemon,  is  considered  by  P.  J.  Berckmans  as  the 
coming  hedge  plant  for  defensive  as  well  as  ornamental 


FORMATION    AM)    MANAGEMENT    OF   GARDENS. 


35 


purposes.  It  requires  but  little  trimming  after  the  third 
year.  It  makes  au  attractive  appearance  iu  spring  by  its 
numerous  white  flowers.  Ligustrum  atnarcnse,  or  Trivet 
is  another  hedge  plant  that  is  well  known  for  satisfactory 
results.  Mr.  Nelson  gives  the  following  directions  for 
planting  and  trimming  a  hedge,  which  apply  equally  well 
to  Osage  Orange  and  Pyracanth: 

"Planting. — First  dig  a  trench  where  the  hedge  is 
iutended  to  be  grown,  two  spades  deep,  throwing  the 
surface  to  one,  and  the  subsoil  to  the  other  side;  then 
throw  the  surface  soil  down  on  the  bottom  of  the  trench, 
and  if  it  is  very  poor,  add  a  little  manure,  or  good  surface 
earth.  Autumn  is  by  far  the  best  time  for  transplanting, 
and  it  can  safely  be  doue  as  soon  as  the  leaves  are 
dropped.  Cut  down  the  plants  to  within  four  inches 
above  the  roots  before  planting.  Several  authors  recom- 
mend planting  in  double  rows,  but  I  decidedly  prefer  a 
single  one.  Assort  the  plants  in  two  parcels,  those  of 
large  and  those  of  small  size,  and  lay  the  smaller  ones 
aside  for  the  richest  ground.  Stretch  the  line  firmly,  and 
place  the  plants  in  as  straight  a  line  as  possible,  one  foot 
apart;  fill  up  the  trench  with  earth,  leaving  about  two 
inches  above  ground;  press  the  earth  not  too  firmly,  but 
water  plentifully,  and  after  that,  level  the  whole  nicely. 

"Trimming. — It  is  perfectly  useless  to  plant  a  hedge 
and  leave  it  to  be  killed  by  weeds,  or  grow  without  trim- 
ming. A  young  hedge  will  require  the  same  amount  of 
labor  as  a  row  of  Indian  corn. 
The  plants  having  been  cut 
down  so  much,  will,  of  course, 
start  vigorously  the  ensuing- 
spring.  A  good  hedge  ought 
never  to  be  trimmed  in  any 
other  than  in  a  conical  shape, 
as  in  Figure  3.  When  trim- 
med in  a  conical  shape,  every  shoot  will  enjoy  the  full 


Fig.  3 — Suction  uf  Hedge. 


36  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

benefit  of  air,  li</ht,  and  moisture,  and  by  this  simple  and 
natural  method,  a  hedge  can  be  shorn  into  a  strong  wall 
of  verdure,  so  green  and  close  from  bottom  to  top,  that  even  a 
sparrow  cannot,  without  difficulty,  pass  through  it.  In  order 
to  make  a  hedge  so  thick  and  impervious  as  above  men- 
tioned, it  is  necessary  to  go  to  work  even  in  the  first  sum- 
mer, with  a  pair  of  hedge  shears,  pruning  the  young 
growth,  when  about  three  months  old,  at  the  same  time 
laying  down  some  of  the  most  vigorous  shoots  to  fill  up 
any  vacant  places  found  near  the  ground.  These  shoots 
may  be  fastened  to  the  ground  with  hooked  pegs.  They 
may  be  considered  as  layers,  will  soon  send  up  a  number 
of  sprouts,  making  the  hedge  impenetrable  for  pigs,  and 
nearly  for  rabbits.  The  young  twigs  may  be  trimmed  in 
a  wedge  shape,  not  more  than  one  foot  high,  and  at  the 
base  six  inches  broad.  The  next  season  the  hedge  may 
be  allowed  to  grow  one  foot  higher,  and  three  or  four 
inches  wider  at  the  base.  This  pruning  is  most  readily 
given  with  a  reaping  hook  (a  sharp  sickle  without  teeth), 
making  the  cut  with  an  upward  stroke.  Thus  the  man- 
agement mast  be  continued  until  the  hedge  has  attained 
the  intended  height,  allowing  an  addition  of  four  inches 
broader  at  the  bottom  for  every  foot  more  in  height.  A 
hedge,  regularly  trimmed  twice  a  year — in  June  and 
November — with  the  exception  of  the  first  years,  when 
it  requires  a  little  more  care  than  afterward,  will  con- 
tinue impenetrable  for  fifty  or  even  one  hundred  years." 
If  cuttings  of  the  Cherokee  Rose  (Rosa  loevigata)  are 
planted  by  the  side  of  a  plank  or  wire  fence,  two  feet 
apart,  they  will  grow  up  and  cover  it  in  a  short  time,  and 
effectually  repel  man  and  beast;  but  the  growth  is  so 
rampant  that  it  requires  constant  shortening  in.  It  is 
also  apt  to  die  out  at  the  bottom  and  become  unsightly, 
and  is  in  all  respects  much  inferior  to  the  single  white 
Macartney  (Rosa  bracteata),  an  evergreen,  and  very  easily 


FORMATION    AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    GARDENS. 


37 


grown  from  cuttings.  The  latter  is  very  thorny,  and  of 
beautiful  foliage.  It  never  dies  out  at  the  bottom,  whether 
pruned  or  not,  and  south  of  Virginia,  is  very  hardy,  and 
of  luxuriant  growth.  A  satisfactory  fence  can  be  made 
with  this,  by  setting  good  chestnut  or  cedar  posts,  eight 
feet  apart,  planted  about  two  and  a  half  feet  in  the 
ground.  Bank  up  the  soil  to  form  some  twenty  inches 
high  along  the  line  of  the  fence,  then  form  the  usual 
paling  fence,  or  nail  a  good  wide  bottom  board,  and  finish 
the  fence  with  heart-pine  six-inch  planks,  or  with  stout 
wire,  strained  through  holes  in  the  posts.  The  wire  fence 
may  be  four  feet  high.  The  roses  should  be  rooted  cut- 
tings, and  may  be  planted  at  first,  even  eight  feet  apart, 
and  by  layering  and  training  the  bottom  shoots,  if  the 
ground  is  kept  in  good  order,  in  three  years  they  will 
repel  every  intruder.  It  is  better,  where  plants  are  abun- 
dant, to  set  them  out  four  feet  apart.  This  hedge  requires 
less  pruning  than  any  other  to  keep  it  impenetrable. 
After  the  posts  and  slats  have  decayed,  the  bank  itself, 
grown  over  with  roses,  will  repel  all  intrusion.  The 
roses  should  be  set  at  about  the  original  level  of  the 
ground,  and  not  at  the  top  of  the  bank.  My  own  hedge 
of  Macartney  rose,  when  three  years  old,  trained  on  a 
common  fence  of  rails  and  paling,  formed  a  barrier  per- 
fectly secure,  and  very  ornamental.  I  see  but  one  objec- 
tion to  it.  It  is  in  summer  always  in  blossom,  and  there- 
fore attracts  all  the  bees  in  the  neighborhood.  In  my 
fruit  garden  I  have  thought  that  the  injury  done  to 
peaches  and  grapes  by  wasps  and  bees  has  been  much 
greater  since  the  hedge  has  grown  up  than  before.  It  is 
a  fine  bee  plant.  In  a  more  northern  climate  the  sweet- 
brier  might  answer  as  a  tolerable  substitute. 

The  American  Holly  makes  an  efficient  and  beautiful 
hedge,  but  is  slow  of  growth  and  very  hard  to  transplant. 
It  can,  however,  be  safely  planted  by  selecting  a  mild, 


38  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

cloudy  day  the  last  of  February,  or  early  in  March,  cut- 
ting off  the  top  as  directed  above  by  Mr.  Nelson  for  the 
Osage  Orange,  and  exposing  the  roots  meanwhile  to  the 
air  as  little  as  possible.  Thousands  of  yards  can  bo  thus 
planted  with  little  loss. 

For  an  ornamental  hedge  about  a  cemetery  lot  or  else- 
where, the  Irish  Yew  and  the  Tree  Box  are  decidedly  the 
best  plants  that  can  be  used.  The  narrow-leaved  variety 
of  Tree  Box  grows  naturally,  just  the  right  shape,  and 
needs  very  little  trimming  after  two  or  three  years.  The 
Yew  likes  shado. 

The  Japan  Quince  planted  by  the  side  of  a  common 
picket  or  plank  fence  will,  in  a  few  years,  make  a  good 
inclosure  for  a  fruit  or  vegetable  garden,  and  in  flower  is 
very  ornamental. 

After  hedges  arc  established,  a  trench  should  be  cut  on 
the  garden  side,  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  from  their 
base,  sufficiently  deep  to  keep  their  roots  from  extending 
into  the  beds  and  injuring  the  crops. 


SOILS TUEli;     CHARACTERISTICS.  39 


CHAPTER   II. 

SOILS — THEIR  CHARACTERISTICS. 

Soils. — In  all  climates  the  character  of  the  soil  is  of 
as  much  importance  as  situation  or  aspect.  Soils  are  of 
two  classes.  They  may  be  composed  of  matter  derived 
directly  from  the  decay  of  rock,  like  clay,  loam,  sand, 
lime,  and  other  earthy  and  alkaline  matters.  Such  a  soil 
is  classed  as  inorganic.  Soils  may  likewise  originate  from 
the  action  and  decay  of  plants  and  animals  (organized 
beings),  as,  for  example,  peat,  mould,  and  shell  marl. 
Such  a  soil  is  classed  as  organic.  A  good  soil  is  the  result 
of  the  proper  union  of  both  these  classes. 

The  mechanical  texture  of 'a  soil  is  likewise  especially 
to  be  regarded,  as  on  this  depends  the  proper  retention  of 
manure  and  moisture.  There  are  two  grand  divisions  of 
soils,  the  heavy  and  light,  which  pass  into  each  other  by 
imperceptible  gradations. 

The  best  classification  of  soils  is  that  of  Schubler,  a 
German,  and  is  founded  entirely  upon  the  relative  pro- 
portions of  the  chief  constituents  of  all  soils — viz.,  clay, 
sand,  lime,  and  humus.     He  classes  them  as  follows: 

Argillaceous  Soils. — These  contain  over  fifty  per  cent, 
of  clay,  and  are  readily  known  by  their  tenacity  and 
greatness  to  the  feel,  caused  by  the  predominance  of  the 
clay  in  them.  They  are  difficult  to  work,  and  in  dry 
weather  bake  like  brick  and  are  not  permeable  to  light 
dews  and  rains.  In  drying,  they  crack,  exposing,  in  sum- 
mer, the  large  roots  of  plants  to  the  air  and  sun,  and 
breaking  the  smaller  ones.  After  heavy  rains  they  be- 
come so  saturated  that  they  are  for  a  long  time  unfit  to 
work,  and  the  plants  therein  die  from  excess  of  moisture. 


40  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

In  short,  they  are  very  cold  when  they  are  wet,  and  very 
hard  when  they  are  dry.  The  crops  are  full  ten  days  later 
in  coming  to  maturity  than  in  a  good,  sandy  loam.  Ordi- 
nary clays  contain  about  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  sand. 
If  less  than  fifteen  per  cent,  they  are  only  fit  for  brick- 
making  and  pottery. 

('lays  are  rich  in  alkalies,  and  have  the  property  of 
retaining  potash,  phosphoric  and  silicic  acids,  and  ;ill 
salts  necessary  to  the  growth  of  plants;  also  of  con- 
densing ammonia  and  other  gaseous  matters.  Hence 
they  retain  the  virtues  of  manure  better  than  most  other 
soils.  Where  there  is  present  lime  and  organic  matters 
in  sufficient  quantity,  clays,  not  too  stiff,  are  excellent 
for  wheat. 

A  sandy  ■soil  is  in  texture  the  opposite  of  the  preceding 
and  the  lightest  of  all  soils.  It  contains  not  over  ten 
per  cent,  of  clay.  Such  soils  are  harsh  to  the  feel,  lack 
cohesion,  permit  the  water  that  falls  upon  them  to  pass 
instantly  through  them,  and,  as  they  heat  up  quickly,  the 
crops  raised  in  them  soon  suffer  from  drought.  In  them 
vegetation  is  early,  but  less  vigorous  and  sustained.  They 
do  not  readily  combine  with  manures,  the  soluble  parts  of 
which  are  leached  into  the  subsoil,  or  are  washed  out  by 
the  rains;  so  that,  if  manure  be  not  constantly  applied, 
they  will  yield  but  a  moderate  crop.  Gravels  are,  in  this 
respect,  from  the  coarseness  of  their  particles,  still  worse 
than  sands,  and  are  very  properly  called  "hungry  soils." 
Indeed,  the  fertility  of  a  soil  depends  in  a  very  great 
degree  upon  the  fineness  of  its  particles.  Sand  is  spar- 
ingly soluble  in  water  containing  alkaline  matter  in  solu- 
tion, and  in  this  state  forms  a  portion,  and  sometimes  an 
important  portion,  of  the  food  of  plants.  It  is  soluble 
silica;  in  other  words,  dissolved  sand,  which  the  plant  of 
Wheat  or  maize  has  extracted  from  the  soil  and  deposited 
upon  the  exterior  of  its  stem,  that  gives  the  stalk  or  straw 


SOILS THEIR    CHARACTERISTICS.  41 

its  stiffness,  and  the  lack  of  which  in  sufficient  quantity 
subjects  it  to  the  attacks  of  rust.  Silica  usually  forms  a 
small  proportion,  too,  of  grains,  legumes,  and  succulent 
roots. 

For  garden  purposes,  the  only  kind  of  sand  suitable  is 
that  which  is  tine  and  has  been  rounded  by  moving  water. 
The  angular  particles  of  road  sand  form  hard,  impermea- 
ble masses,  and  should  never  be  employed.     (Lindley.) 

A  loamy  .sand  i  i  a  better  soil  than  the  preceding,  and 
contains  from  ten  to  twenty  per  cent,  of  clay.  These  light 
soils  are  best  adapted  to  tap-roots  and  bulbs  and  for 
striking  cuttings,  while  those  heavier  are  better  fitted 
for  plants  with  fibrous  roots. 

A  sandy  loam  contains  between  twenty  and  thirty  per 
cent,  of  clay,  while  all  soils  containing  from  thirty  to  fifty 
per  cent,  of  clay  are  classed  as  ordinary  loams. 

In  a  garden  designed  for  the  cultivation  of  a  variety  of 
plants,  both  a  light  and  a  moderately  heavy  soil  are  de- 
sirable. But  the  best  soil  for  general  purposes  is  a  loam 
of  medium  texture,  rather  li^ht  than  otherwise,  arising 
from  a  suitable  admixture  of  the  two,  as  they  reciprocally 
correct  the  defects  of  each  other.  Where  the  other  essen- 
tials are  present  naturally,  or  added  by  man,  such  a  soil 
is  suitable  for  the  production  of  nearly  all  garden  crops. 
Any  soil,  by  judicious  culture,  draining,  and  amelioraters, 
or  amendments,  can  be  converted  into  such  a  loam. 

Lime  in  greater  or  less  proportions  is  generally  present 
in  soils,  commonly  as  a  carbonate.  It  is  sparingly  solu- 
ble in  water,  and  is  especially,  when  combined  with  acids, 
as  in  the  sulphate  (gypsum),  or  the  phosphate  of  lime 
(bone  earth),  an  important  portion  of  the  food  of  our 
most  useful  plants.  There  are  some  plants,  however,  as 
the  Kalmia,  to  which  its  presence,  to  any  appreciable  ex- 
tent in  soils,  is  injurious.  Any  one  of  the  foregoing  soils 
that  contains  from  five  to  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  lime  is 


42  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

classed  as  marly  (as  a  marly  clay,  a  marly  loam,  etc.). 
When  it  contains  over  twenty  per  cent,  it  is  classed  as 
calcareous.  A  small  percentage  only  of  lime  is  required 
for  the  successful  growth  of  plants.  Marly  soils,  other 
things  being  equal,  are  the  best  adapted  to  fruit  trees 
and  wheat.  They  are  also  classed  as  argillaceous,  loamy, 
sandy-loamy,  and  loamy-sandy  marls,  etc.,  according  to 
the  relative  amounts  in  them  of  clay  and  sand;  while  if 
they  contain  above  five  per  cent,  of  humus  (vegetable  mat- 
ter in  a  state  of  decay),  they  are  classed  as  humus  marls, 
which  may  be  also  argillaceous,  if  containing  fifty  per 
cent,  of  clay;  loamy,  if  from  thirty  to  fifty  per  cent.,  and 
sandy,  if  less  than  thirty  per  cent,  of  clay. 

Calcareous  soils  (which  contain  more  than  twenty  per 
cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime)  also  are  classed  in  the  same 
manner  with  marly  soils,  according  to  the  relative 
amounts  of  clay,  sand,  and  humus  they  contain — as  argil- 
laceous, or  loamy  calcareous,  etc. 

Organic  Soils. — Shell  marls,  though  of  organic  origin, 
are  naturally  classed  with  the  calcareous  soils.  The  other 
organic  soils  are  mainly  of  vegetable  origin,  resulting 
from  the  decay  of  plants,  ami  are  named  humus  soils. 
This  last  class  is  of  three  orders:  1st.  Soluble  mild  humus, 
that  is,  vegetable  mould  in  a  fit  condition  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  plants  which  grow  in  it,  such  as  thoroughly 
rotted  peat,  black  or  leaf-mould.  2.  Acid  humus,  which 
contains  a  free  acid,  injurious,  if  not  destructive,  to  most 
plants.  3d.  Peat  or  other  fibrous  vegetable  matter,  which, 
though  free  from  acidity,  is  not  yet  in  a  proper  condition 
to  impart  nourishment  to  plants.  Humus  soils  may  be 
argillaceous,  loam}'  and  sandy,  and  also  contain,  or  be 
destitute  of,  calcareous  matter. 

Humus  has  the  property  of  producing  a  constant  sup- 
ply of  carbonic  acid  by  slow  combination  with  oxygen. 
It  aids  greatly  in  keeping  a  soil  in  an  open  state,  so  as  to 


SOILS THEIR    CHARACTERISTICS.  43 

allow  water  and  air  to  pass  freely  through  it,  and  by  vir- 
tue of  its  porosity  it  condenses  and  retains  gaseous  mat- 
ter within,  and  it  absorbs  saline  substances.  Though  such 
a  soil  freely  parts  with  a  superabundance  of  water,  yet  in 
dry  weather  it  imbibes  from  the  atmosphere  large  sup- 
plies of  moisture.  Schubler  found  that  100  pounds  of 
dry  humus  would  hold  190  pounds  of  water  without  losing 
a  drop.  In  dry  weather  1,000  grains  of  it  spread  upon 
a  surface  of  fifty  inches  absorbed  from  the  atmosphere 
in  three  days  120  grains  of  moisture.  Of  silicious  sand 
the  same  amount  absorbed  nothing;  sandy  clay,  28  grains; 
loamy  clay,  35;  stiff  clay,  35;  garden  mould,  52.  Hence 
the  best  defence  we  have  against  drought  is  an  abundant 
supply  of  decayed  organic  matter  in  a  loamy  soil.  Neither 
clay,  sand,  humus,  nor  lime  will,  if  pure,  sustain  a  healthy 
vegetation;  but  properly  mixed,  they  constitute  the  main 
ingredients  of  the  richest  soils  in  the  world.  As  good 
loam  contains  sufficient  lime,  it  is  constantly  employed 
with  peat  and  sand,  in  varying  proportions,  by  gardeners 
as  the  essentials  for  proper  development  of  the  plants 
they  wish  to  grow  therein. 

Where  true  peat  cannot  be  obtained,  leaf-mould  from 
the  woods,  black  muck  from  the  swamps,  well  decom- 
posed and  sweetened  by  exposure,  or  thoroughly  rotted 
turf  mixed  with  powdered  charcoal,  are  the  besl  substi- 
tutes.* 

The  depth  of  a  soil  is  quite  as  important  as  its  texture. 
If  not  naturally  deep,  it  must  be  made  so  by  trenching. 
Deep  soils  retain  a  constant  supply  of  moisture  in  dry 
weather,  so  that  the  plants  do  not  suffer;  they  do  not 
become  too  wet  in  rainy  seasons,  as  the  earth  drinks  in 
and  retains  the  rain  below  the  surface;  hence  they  are 
not  so  liable  to  wash  away.    If  equally  rich,  they  furnish 


*  Rural  Cyclopedia,  Dr.  Lindley. 


44  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

plants  with  a  more  abundant  supply  of  food  than  shallow 
soils.  Especially  for  all  tap-rooted  plants,  a  deep  soil  is 
indispensable.  In  the  preparation  of  your  garden,  then, 
see  thai  the  ground  is  dry,  deep,  and  rich,  (iood  vege- 
tables will  not  grow  in  a  wet  soil;  a  shallow  soil  will  not. 
furnish  them  with  a  regular  supply  of  moisture ;  and  the 
crops  growing  upon  a  poor  soil  never  repay  the  labor 
bestowed  upon  them. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE    SOIL. 


45 


CHAPTER     III. 

THE    IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE   SOIL. 

A  soil  may  be  improved  in  texture,  in  depth,  and  by  the 
addition  of  such  constituents  necessary  for  the  growth  of 
plants  as  may  be  wanting. 

The  texture  of  a  clayey  -soil  can  be  rendered  more  per- 
vious by  thorough  draining,  deep  trenching,  and  by  the 
application  of  sand,  ashes,  lime  and  unfermented  manure. 
Any  clayey,  retentive  subsoil  will  be  greatly  benefited  by 
good  underdrains.  A  wet  soil  is  always  cold,  as  water 
has  a  much  greater  capacity  for  heat  than  has  earth. 
The  same  quantity  of  heat  that  will  warm  the  earth  four 
degrees  will  warm  water  but  one.  Water,  also,  is  a  bad 
conductor  of  heat  downwards.  Boiling  water  can  be 
gently  poured  over  cold  water  without  heating  the  latter, 
except  a  very  little  at  the  surface.  Now,  if  the  soil  in 
spring  be  saturated  with  water  colder  than  the  summer 
rains,  unless  it  be  removed  by  drainage,  the  rains  cannot 
descend  to  carry  warmth  into  the  ground;  neither  will  the 
wet  soil  conduct  the  atmospheric  heat  downwards  with 
much  rapidity.  But  draw  off  the  cold  water  by  proper 
drains,  and  the  warmer  water  can  percolate  through  and 
raise  the  temperature  of  the  soil.  As  the  warmer  water 
settles,  the  porous  space  it  occupies  will  admit  warm  air. 
(Thompson.)  Drainage,  also,  by  admitting  the  atmosphere, 
renders  the  soil  much  more  friable.  Soils  wrell  drained 
have  likewise  been  found  to  suffer  far  less  from  summer 
droughts  than  before.  Underdrains  should  be  not  less 
than  three  feet  below  the  surface,  and  four  feet  is  much 
to  be  preferred. 

Trenching  renders  the  upper  stratum  of  soil  more  light 


46  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

and  friable  acting-  as  drainage,  but  imperfectly.  Its  great 
utility  is  in  increasing  the  quantity  of  soil  to  which  the 
roots  of  plants  find  access. 

Drainage. — Lands  which  produce  poor  crops  in  spite 
of  their  fertility  may  be  greatly  improved  by  drainage, 
particularly  if  the  soil  contains  a  surplus  amount  of 
water  The  surface  water  must  How  off  freely  and  rapidly 
after  sinking  below  the  surface.  Whenever  it  stands  on 
the  surface  any  considerable  length  of  time  after  a  rain 
it  is  evidence  of  the  saturated  condition  of  the  soil,  and 
therefore  great  need  of  thorough  drainage. 

The  benefits  of  draining  lands  are  summed  up  as  fol- 
lows: Deepening  the  soil,  pulverization  is  accelerated, 
surface  washing  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  the  soil  works 
lighter,  air  is  readily  supplied  to  the  roots  of  the  plants, 
the  evil  effects  of  droughts  are  greatly  reduced,  because 
the  open,  porous  condition  of  the  soil  permits  of  the 
absorption  of  air,  and,  when  the  air  particles  come  in 
contact  with  the  cool  earth,  moisture  is  precipitated  from 
the  atmosphere. 

The  usual  shape  of  tiles  is  shown  in  Figure  4.    It  is  an 

earthenware  tube  vary- 
ing in  diameter  from  three 
inches  upwards.  A  collar 
fits  over  the  joints  and 
serves  the  double  purpose 
of  holding  the  sections  together  and  at  the  same  time 
preventing  the  entrance  of  sand  at  the  joints.  In  clay 
soils  no  collar  is  required. 

The  size  of  the  pipe  needed  to  drain  the  land  must  be 
determined  by  the  amount  of  water  to  be  conducted  off, 
and  the  character  of  the  adjacent  lots  from  which  the 
water  may  be  drawn  when  the  system  begins  operation; 
and  it  must  meet  the  emergency  of  heavy  flows  of  water. 
The  pipes  must  be  sunk  deep  enough  to  place  them  out 


Fig.  4— Drain  Tile. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    THE    SOIL.  47 

of  reach  of  the  subsoil  plow  and  frost,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  render  them  efficient  in  the  work  they  are  to  per- 
form. Experience  has  proven  that  three  to  four  feet 
below  the  surface  will  yield  the  best  results.  The  fall 
must  be  sufficient  to  readily  and  rapidly  carry  off  the 
water  entering  the  system.  Ordinarily,  three  inches  fall 
to  each  one  hundred  feet  distance  will  give  a  flow  strong- 
enough  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  soil,  but  a  greater  fall 
will  yield  better  results.  In  determining  the  size  of  the 
drain  pipes  the  following  fact  must  be  borne  in  mind: 
The  smaller  the  pipe  the  more  concentrated  the  flow  and 
the  greater  the  chance  for  sweeping  along  solid  matters, 
and  thus  ridding  the  pipe  of  clogging  materials.  The 
capacity  of  a  pipe  is  proportionate  to  the  square  of  the 
diameter,  so  that  a  tile  one  inch  in  diameter  will  have 
a  capacity  of  one  inch  of  water,  while  a  pipe  two  inches 
in  diameter  will  take  four  inches;  one  three  inches  in 
diameter  wTill  take  nine  inches.  As  a  general  rule,  a 
three-inch  pipe  will  drain  two  and  one-half  acres  when 
placed  five  hundred  feet  apart,  a  four-inch  pipe  four  acres, 
six-inch  pipe  nine  acres,  when  the  grades  are  less  than 
three  feet  to  the  hundred. 

The  distance  between  the  trenches  to  hold  the  tiles  may 
vary  from  fifteen  to  fifty  feet,  depending  upon  whether 
the  land  is  stiff  clay  or  sandy.  The  mains  must  be  large 
enough  to  readily  take  the  water  which  the  laterals 
collect  and  transmit  to  them. 

The  water  goes  in  at  the  joints  and  not  through  the 
pores  of  the  tiles,  as  some  people  assert,  so  that  in  laying 
the  system  care  must  be  taken  simply  to  place  the  pipes 
end  to  end  without  cementing  or  obstructing  the  joints, 
and  thus  preventing  the  free  and  ready  flow  of  water  into 
the  system. 

The  old  notion  of  covering  the  land  with  an  elaborate 
system  of  piping  has  been  abandoned,  and  it  has  been 


48  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

found  by  experiment  only  necessary  to  tile  the  lower 
portions  of  the  land,  and  the  uplands  will  also  be  suffi- 
ciently drained. 

Ashes  and  lime  each  have  the  property  of  rendering 
heavy  soils  lighter,  and  light  soils  more  tenacious,  and 
both  more  productive,  especially  for  potatoes,  turnips, 
beets,  and  peas,  which  delight  in  calcareous  soils.  In  cold 
climates,  plowing  clay  lands  deeply  in  the  fall,  and  expos- 
ing them  to  the  action  of  the  winter's  frost,  is  very  bene- 
ficial, but  in  sections  where  there  is  little  frost  and  abun- 
dant and  heavy  washing  rains,  it  is  worse  than  useless. 
Turning  under  coarse  vegetable  or  carbonaceous  matter, 
as  straw,  leaves,  pine  straw,  corn-stalks,  a  crop  of  cow- 
peas,  clover,  or  any  other  green  crop,  bog,  or  leaf-mould, 
decomposed  peat,  and  even  tan-bark  itself,  so  deeply  be- 
neath the  surface  as  not  to  interfere  with  cultivation,  will 
by  the  slow  decomposition  of  these  materials  much  in- 
crease the  fertility  of  a  clay  soil  by  improving  its  texture. 
It  is  most  improved  by  drainage,  if  needed. 

The  frequent  working  of  the  soil  with  the  hoe  and 
spade,  thereby  admitting  the  ammonia  and  fertilizing- 
gases  of  the  atmosphere,  is  itself  very  beneficial  to  clay 
soils,  if  done  when  the  earth  is  dry.  A  clay  soil  is  exceed- 
ingly injured  if  worked  while  wet.  It  is  so  difficult  to 
work,  and  so  liable  to  bake  into  a  hard  crust  after  every 
rain,  that  it  will  well  repay,  where  materials  for  the 
purpose  are  at  all  convenient,  to  lay  out  a  good  deal  of 
time  and  labor  in  improving  its  mechanical  texture. 

The  texture  of  a  sandy  soil  is  much  more  easily  improved 
than  a  clay,  as  the  percentage  of  clay  required  to  con- 
vert any  sand  into  a  loam  is  not  very  large,  and  can  easily 
be  added.  Fortunately,  too,  in  sandy  soils,  clay  is  gen- 
erally near  at  hand,  often  lying  but  a  few  inches  beneath 
the  surface.  A  few  loads  of  stiff  clay,  scattered  thinly 
over  the  surface  in  autumn,  are  worth  more  applied  to 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    THE    SOIL.  49 

such  a  soil  than  any  manure,  for  the  clay  will  render 
manures  permanent  in  their  effect,  which  else  would 
leach  through  without  benefit  to  the  crops.  The  effect 
of  the  clay  itself  is  lasting.  Lime,  as  before  observed, 
stiffens  the  texture  of  a  sandy  soil,  and  gypsum  has  the 
same  effect.  Ashes,  leached  or  unleached,  are  also  an 
excellent  and  profitable  dressing  to  such  a  soil,  but  the 
best  of  all  applications  is  a  good  clay  marl.  Peat,  vege- 
table manure,  and  carbonaceous  matters  of  all  kinds, 
such  as  refuse  charcoal,  are  good  applications  to  these 
sandy  soils,  as  they  enable  them  better  to  retain  the  fer- 
tilizing properties  of  the  manure  applied,  though  they  do 
not  much  affect  the  texture  of  the  soil.  Sandy  soils  very 
often  rest  upon  a  clay  bottom,  so  that  the  thorough 
trenching  which  a  garden  should  receive  will  often 
greatly  improve  its  texture.  Working  such  a  soil  while 
wet,  and  the  continual  use  of  the  roller  will  also  render 
it  more  tenacious.  But  clay  is  the  great  improver,  and 
it  is  astonishing  how  small  a  quantity  of  fine  clay  will 
cement  a  loose  sand  into  a  good  loam. 

To  conclude,  in  regard  to  the  texture  of  soils,  choose  or 
make  for  the  garden  a  loam  of  medium  texture  a  little 
inclined  to  sand,  and  the  finer  its  particles  the  better. 
Clays  and  sands  both  become  objectionable  as  they  depart 
from  this  friable,  loamy  texture,  and  the  first  step  in  their 
improvement  is  to  bring  them  to  this  condition.  A 
medium  consistency  best  agrees  with  vegetation. 

The  depth  of  soil  in  the  garden  is  as  likely  to  need  im- 
provement as  its  texture.  A  deep  soil  is  necessary  that 
the  roots  may  penetrate  it  freely  in  search  of  food,  and  be 
able  to  endure  our  summer  droughts.  The  roots  of  a 
strawberry  have  been  traced  five  feet  down  in  a  deep, 
rich  soil.  The  difference  in  the  freshness  and  growth  of 
plants  raised  upon  trenched  soils  and  those  growing  upon 
soils  prepared  in  the  common  manner  is  remarkable.  In 
4 


50  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

lawns,  the  color  of  the  grass  will  indicate  very  exactly 
the  greater  or  less  depth  of  the  soil.  The  depth  of  soils 
may  be  increased  by  subsoil  plowing,  or  trenching. 

Trenching  is  the  old  mode  of  improving  the  depth  of 
the  soil  in  smaller  gardens,  and  is  usually  performed  in 
this  manner:  At  one  end  of  the  plot  to  be  trenched  dig 
with  the  spade  a  trench  three  feet  wide  and  two  feel 
deep;  throw  the  earth  out  on  the  side  away  from  the  plot 
to  be  trenched.  Shovel  the  bottom  clean,  and  make  the 
sides  perpendicular,  leaving  a  clear  open  trench  across 
the  plot.  Open  another  trench  the  same  width,  and  put 
the  surface  spadeful  of  that  into  the  bottom  of  the  former 
trench,  and  the  next  spadeful  upon  that,  until  open  to 
the  same  depth  as  the  first  one,  adding  meanwhile  the 
necessary  manures  and  amendments.  When  the  plot  is 
entirely  trenched  in  this  way,  the  last  trench  will  remain 
open,  which  must  be  filled  with  the  earth  thrown  out  from 
the  first  one,  which  finishes  the  work.  This  method  is 
now  seldom  resorted  to,  since  the  same  ends  are  secured 
by  the  use  of  the  subsoil  plow  with  very  much  less  expen- 
diture of  labor  and  time 

Subsoil  Plowing. — A  common  turning  plow  goes  first, 
and  plows  as  deep  a  furrow  as  practicable.  It  is  followed 
by  the  subsoil  plow  in  the  same  furrow,  which  should 
loosen  the  soil,  without  turning  it  up,  to  the  depth  of 
eighteen  or  twenty  inches,  unless  it  is  a  stiff  clay  or 
gravel.  If  the  soil  requires  the  application  of  organic 
matter,  it  is  best  to  apply  it  before  the  deep  plowing  is 
done;  or  the  organic  matter  may  be  secured  by  first  pre- 
paring the  land  well  and  sowing  in  cowpeas  or  fieldpeas 
and  turning  under.  This  is  one  of  the  best  ways  of  en- 
riching the  land,  and  should  be  always  adopted  where 
the  land  is  poor. 


FERTILIZERS    AND    MANURES.  51 


CHArTER    IV. 

FERTILIZERS   AND    MANURES. 

It  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  return  to  the  soil  all  those 
ingredients  which  the  plants  have  taken  off,  so  that  the 
land  will  not  become  impoverished.  Fertilizing,  there- 
fore, is  the  essential  part  of  the  gardener's  duty  each  year. 

The  substances  applied  to  the  soil  for  its  betterment 
may  be  divided  into  two  groups: 

1.  Those  minerals  which  amend  the  condition  of  the 
land  by  changing  its  texture,  correcting  its  acidity  and 
otherwise  modifying  its  condition  than  by  the  nourish- 
ment they  directly  afford  the  plants.  Such  are  clay,  sand, 
lime,  marl,  old  plaster,  etc.,  when  applied  to  soils  which 
need  them. 

2.  Organic  and  inorganic  substances  which  supply  the 
food  for  plants — such  as  barnyard  manures  and  commer- 
cial fertilizers. 

The  first  group  may  be  applied  at  irregular,  and  proba- 
bly at  long  intervals,  in  order  to  place  the  soil  in  the  best 
physical  condition  for  the  well-being  of  the  plant;  but 
the  second  group  of  substances  must  be  placed  in  the 
land  in  small  or  large  quantities  as  the  needs  demand, 
each  year  in  order  to  keep  the  fertility  of  the  soil  up  to 
its  maximum  condition  by  restoring  what  has  been 
extracted  during  each  harvest. 

The  ingredients  most  likely  extracted  by  the  growing 
plant,  in  sufficient  quantities  to  seriously  affect  the  fer- 
tility of  the  land,  are  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  nitro- 
gen. The  other  substances  entering  into  the  composition 
of  the  plant  are  taken  in  such  small  amounts  that  the 
effects  on  the  soil  are  inappreciable  even  after  many  years 


b'Z  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

of  cultivation.  It  is  important,  then,  that  the  three  chemi- 
cals— phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  nitrogen — should  be 
returned  to  the  land  each  year  in  quantities  sufficient  for 
and  in  condition  suitable  to  the  immediate  demands  of 
the  growing  plant. 

The  nutritive  manures  mentioned  in  the  second  group 
are  contributors  directly  to  the  demands  of  the  plant,  but 
barnyard  manure  is  probably  the  most  efficient  fertilizer 
for  restoring  the  soil  to  a  normal  condition  than  is  to  be 
secured  from  any  of  the  so-called  commercial  fertilizers. 
It  not  only  contains  the  elements  required  for  plant  food, 
but  it  also  has  the  property  of  rendering  available  the 
stored-up  ingredients  and  greatly  improving  the  condi- 
tion of  the  soil  for  absorbing  moisture.  Barnyard  manure, 
however,  is  variable  in  its  value,  depending  upon  the 
character  of  food  fed  to  the  animals,  the  condition  of 
animals — whether  young  and  growing  or  old  and  feeble, 
fattening  or  in  normal  condition,  the  proportion  of  litter 
placed  in  the  stalls,  and  the  care  with  which  the  manure 
is  kept.  If  fermentation  has  taken  place,  and  the  manure 
has  been  permitted  to  weather,  so  that  leaching  may 
result,  of  course  the  soluble  constituents  will  be  lost, 
and  the  fertilizer  will  be  greatly  depreciated  in  value. 

"  When  practicable,  it  is  best  to  apply  manure  in  the 
fresh  condition.  The  disposition  to  be  made  of  the 
manure  of  the  farm  (both  fermented  and  unfermented) 
must  be  determined  largely  by  the  nature  of  the  crop 
and  soil.  Where  improvement  of  the  mechanical  condi- 
tion of  the  soil  is  the  principal  object  sought,  fresh 
manure  is  best  adapted  for  this  purpose  to  heavy  soils, 
and  well-rotted  manure  to  light  soils.  Where  prompt 
action  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  is  desired,  the  best 
results  will  probably  be  obtained  by  applying  fresh 
manure  to  the  light  soil,  although  excessive  applications 
in  this  case  should  be  avoided  on  account  of  the  danger 


FERTILIZERS    AND    MANURES.  53 

of  'burning  out'  of  the  soil  in  dry  seasons.  Fresh  manure 
has  a  forcing  effect,  and  is  better  suited  to  grasses  and 
forage  plants  than  to  plants  grown  for  seeds,  such  as 
cereals.  Direct  applications  to  root  crops,  such  as  sugar 
beets,  potatoes,  or  tobacco,  often  prove  injurious.  The 
manure  should  be  spread  when  carried  to  the  field,  and 
not  left  in  lumps  to  leach."* 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  sold  under  two  classes — 
viz.,  "complete"  and  "partial,"  depending  upon  whether 
the  three  necessary  ingredients  (phosphoric  acid,  potash 
and  nitrogen)  are  present  or  only  one  or  two  of  them. 
In  determining  which  of  these  two  classes  of  fertilizers 
to  use  the  gardener  must  be  governed  entirely  by  the 
character  of  the  plant  and  the  condition  of  the  soil. 

"Plants,"  says  Liebig,  "contain  combustible  and  incom- 
bustible ingredients.  The  latter,  wmich  compose  the  ash 
left  by  all  parts  of  plants  on  combustion,  consist,  in  the 
case  of  our  cultivated  plants,  essentially  of  phosphoric 
acid,  potash,  silicic  and  sulphuric  acids,  lime,  iron,  mag- 
nesia, and  chloride  of  sodium."  It  is  now  fully  established 
"that  the  constituents  of  the  ash  are  elements  of  food, 
and  hence  indispensable  to  the  structure  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  plant." 

The  few  ashes  that  remain  after  burning  a  plant  are  all 
that  it  got  necessarily  from  the  soil.  From  eighty-eight 
to  ninety-nine  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  plant  has 
escaped  into  the  air,  from  which,  and  from  water,  the 
plant  has  derived  it  immediately  or  remotely.  The  com- 
position of  their  ashes  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  same 
plant  and  slightly  in  the  same  species  when  grown  on 
different  soils;  but  they  are  always  a  valuable  manure  for 
the  species  from  which  obtained,  and,  slowly  dissolving 


*"Barnyard  Manure,"  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  21,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  p.  31. 


54  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

in  the  soil,  they  furnish  the  roots  with  just  the  salts  re- 
quired to  nourish  the  growing  plant. 

But,  in  general,  over  nine  pounds  in  every  ten  have 
disappeared  under  the  action  of  fire.  The  combustible 
portions  which  have  been  expelled  are  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  a  little  nitrogen,  which  have  been  derived 
from  carbonic  acid,  water,  and  ammonia,  which  are,  as 
elements  of  food,  equally  indispensable  as  the  substances 
of  which  the  ashes  of  plants  are  composed. 

The  incombustible  constituents  of  the  plant  come  from 
the  soil  alone,  and  are  taken  up  by  the  roots. 

After  the  gaseous  constituents  of  plants  are  driven  off 
by  combustion,  the  small  percentage  of  ashes  remaining, 
as  we  have  stated,  consists  of  silicic  and  phosphoric  acids, 
potash,  sulphur,  lime,  magnesia,  iron,  chlorine  and  soda  (the 
two  latter  generally  unite  as  chloride  of  sodium),  all  of 
which,  in  greater  or  less  proportions,  enter  into  the 
composition  of  our  field  and  garden  crops.  These  earthy 
or  saline  constituents  are  found  within  the  cells  of  plants, 
or  deposited  as  a  lining  to  the  cell-walls,  or  entering  into 
their  substance.  They  are  useful  to  the  plant  itself,  and 
useful  in  the  plant's  products  as  affording  food  to  man. 
Some  of  them  are  always  present  in  the  azotized  sub- 
stances formed  by  plants.  Thus  sulphur  and  the  phos- 
phates are,  with  ammonia,  necessary  for  the  formation  of 
albumen,  fibrin,  and  caseine,  which  are  essential  con- 
stituents of  our  blood. 

Limb  generally  occurs  as  a  carbonate  and  sulphate,  or 
gypsum.  Partially  soluble  in  water,  it  is  an  important 
ingredient  in  the  soil  to  most  of  our  cultivated  plants.  It 
is  indispensable  to  such  plants  as  beets,  potatoes,  peas, 
beans,  fruit  trees,  grasses,  and  vines,  but  to  Kalmias  and 
coniferous  trees  it  is  injurious.  Lime  in  the  soil  enables 
it  better  to  absorb  and  retain  heat,  and  also  corrects 
acidity.     It  is  of  great  value  as  an  application  to  cold. 


FERTILIZERS    AND    MANURES.  55 

tenacious  soils,  rendering  them  of  more  open  texture, 
and  making  the  organic  matters  therein  available  to 
plants.  It,  on  the  other  hand,  makes  light  soils  more 
adhesive,  acting  as  an  amendment.  It  decomposes 
organic  matters,  whether  vegetable  or  animal,  and  forms 
with  them  a  partially  soluble  compound  peculiarly  fitted 
for  the  food  of  plants.  But  as  it  has  the  property  of  setting 
free  ammonia,  it  should  never  be  applied  in  connection  with 
fresh  animal  manures.  Mixed  with  stable  manure  or  guano, 
it  would  speedily  free  them  from  nearly  all  their  am- 
monia, that  indispensable  and  most  costly  constituent 
of  the  food  of  plants. 

This  will  not  happen  to  any  great  extent,  and  there  will 
be  little  loss,  if  the  mixture  takes  place  in,  and  both  the 
lime  and  manure  are  entirely  covered  with  the  soil,  which 
will  at  once  absorb  whatever  ammonia  the  lime  sets  free. 

The  great  value  of  lime,  aside  from  the  small  quantity 
direct!}'  available  to  plants,  is  in  hastening,  as  above 
stated,  the  decomposition  of  decaying  matters  in  the  soil, 
and  rendering  them  assimilable  by  plants.  The  old  black 
mould  of  kitchen  gardens  and  other  soils  rich  in  humus, 
it  will  suddenly  render  wonderfully  productive,  and  they 
will  consequently  speedily  become  exhausted,  unless  new 
supplies  of  organic  manures  are  added.  Lime  alone, 
added  to  a  soil,  will  speedily  exhaust  it  if  the  crops  are 
removed  and  no  return  of  manure  is  made. 

Dr.  Hilyard,  in  the  Tenth  Census  Reports  on  cotton 
production,  makes  the  following  admirable  deduction 
concerning  the  use  of  lime  in  soils: 

1.  "A  more  rapid  transformation  of  the  vegetable  mat- 
ter into  active  humus. 

2.  "The  retention  of  such  humus  against  the  oxidizing 
influences  of  hot  climates. 

3.  "It  renders  adequate  for  more  profitable  culture 
percentages  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  so  small  that 


56  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

in  the  case  of  the  absence  or  deficiency  of  lime,  the  soil  is 
practically  sterile. 

4.  "It  tends  to  secure  the  proper  conditions  of  nitrifica- 
tion whereby  the  inert  nitrogen  of  the  soil  is  rendered 
available. 

5.  "It  exerts  a  most  important  influence  upon  the 
flocculation,  and  therefore  upon  the  tiHabiiity  of  the 
soil."* 

The  Indirect  Action  of  Manures. — Some  manures 
ameliorate  the  soil  by  absorbing  and  retaining  moisture 
from  the  atmosphere.  This  property  is  as  beneficial  to 
a  clay  as  to  a  sandy  soil  during  drought,  as  at  such  times 
clays  are  often  baked  so  as  to  be  impervious  to  the  dew, 
and  suffer  nearly  or  quite  as  much  as  more  sandy  soils. 
The  best  absorbents  of  moisture  are  stable  manure,  thor- 
oughly decomposed  tan-bark,  and  the  manure  of  the  cow 
and  pig,  in  the  order  named.  After  these  come  sheep  and 
fowl  manure,  salt,  soot,  and  even  burnt  clay  is  not  with- 
out its  virtue.  All  these  absorbents  are  much  more  effec- 
tual when  finely  divided,  and  the  soil  itself  is  a  good 
absorbent  in  proportion  to  its  richness,  fineness,  and  the 
friability  produced  by  frequent  culture.  In  the  power  of 
retaining  moisture  absorbed,  pig  manure  stands  pre- 
eminent; next  that  of  the  horse,  then  common  salt  and 
soot. 

Some  manures  are  beneficial  in  absorbing  not  only 
moisture,  but  nutritious  gases  from  the  atmosphere, 
which  they  yield  to  the  roots  in  a  concentrated  form.  All 
animal  and  vegetable  manures  have  the  power  of  attract- 
ing oxygen  from  the  air  during  decomposition.  Charcoal 
and  all  carbonaceous  matters  have  the  power  of  absorb- 
ing carbonic  acid  gas  in  large  quantities,  supplying  con- 
stantly to  the  roots  of  plants  an  atmosphere  of  carbonic 


"Cotton  Production— Tenth  Census, 


FBETILIZEKS    AM)    MANURES. 


57 


acid,  which  is  renewed  as  quickly  as  it  is  abstracted. 
The  same  substances  are  especially  valuable  for  their 
power  of  absorbing  ammonia.  Charcoal  will  absorb 
ninety  times  its  volume  of  ammoniacal  gas,  which  can 
be  separated  by  simply  moistening  it  with  water. 

Decayed  wood  absorbs  seventy  times  its  volume,  while 
leaf-mould,  perfectly  rotted  tan-bark,  and,  in  fact,  all 
vegetable  manures,  are  exceedingly  valuable  in  this 
respect. 

Another  indirect  action  of  manure  in  assisting  the 
growth  of  plants  is  in  decomposing  and  rendering  available 
any  stubborn  organic  substances  in  the  soil.  Stable 
manure,  and  all  decomposing  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances, have  a  tendency  to  promote  the  decay  of  any 
organic  remains  in  the  soil.  All  putrescent  substances 
hasten  the  process  of  putrefaction  in  other  organic  bodies 
with  which  they  come  in  contact.  Even  peat  and  tan- 
bark,  mingled  with  stable  dung  and  Tcept  moist,  are  converted 
into  good  manure;  common  salt  in  small  proportions  has 
a  similar  septic  property,  and  the  efficacy  of  lime  in  this 
respect  is  well  known. 

Ashes  are  of  equal  value,  but  not  so  easy  to  obtain  in 
sufficient  quantity.  Neither  ashes  nor  lime  should  ever  be 
mixed  with  manures  that  are  rich  in  ammonia,  such  as 
cotton  seed  or  animal  manures,  as  they  would  cause  great 
waste  of  ammonia  by  setting  it  free  and  permitting  it  to 
be  lost  in  the  atmosphere. 

Inorganic  substances  are  sometimes  released  from  their 
combinations,  and  rendered  soluble  by  the  application  of 
carbonaceous  manures.  Ashes  from  which  the  soluble 
potash  has  been  leached,  if  composted  with  swamp  muck, 
are  enabled  to  furnish  plants  with  a  further  supply.  By 
composting  the  two  the  value  of  both  is  greatly  increased. 
Such  a  compost  may  be  mixed  with  ammoniacal  manures, 


58  GARDENING   FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

not  only  without  loss,  but  with  decided  benefit,  and  the 
ammonia  will  be  retained. 

Another  indirect  agency  of  manures  is  in  protecting 
plants  from  sudden  changes  of  temperature.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  rich  soils  and  those  abounding  in  animal  and 
vegetable  remains,  are  less  liable  to  change  their  temper- 
ature with  the  incumbent  atmosphere  than  those  of 
poorer  constituents,  for  the  decomposition  of  manures 
gives  warmth  to  the  soil.  Corn  can  be  grown  in  high 
latitudes  upon  rich  land  only;  upon  a  poor  soil  it  would 
perish. 

The  last  indirect  effect  of  manures  upon  plants  is  to 
improve  the  texture  of  the  soils  in  which  they  grow. 
Decomposing  in  the  ground,  they  leave  interstices  as  they 
become  less  in  bulk,  making  it  more  light  and  porous. 
The  effect  of  manure  in  rendering  a  stiff  soil  light  and 
friable  is  very  well  known.  It  is  equally  true  that  vege- 
table manures  give  to  sandy  soils  greater  tenacity, 
enabling  them  better  to  retain  moisture  and  ammonia. 

Manures,  then,  should  be  adapted  to  soils  and  circum- 
stances. Cohesive  and  binding  manures  are  most  suitable 
for  open  sands;  those  of  open  texture,  for  stiff  clays;  those 
that  readily  attract  and  retain  moisture,  for  dry  soils; 
heating,  dry,  strawy,  and  turfy  manures,  for  wet  or  clayey 
soils;  and  those  of  slow  decomposition  for  hungry  gravels. 

Gypsum. — Of  this  a  very  small  quantity  will  suffice. 
One  bushel  per  acre  3rearly  is  all  that  is  needed.  In 
absorbing  ammonia  from  the  manure  heap,  charcoal  dust 
and  leaf-mould  are  much  cheaper.  It  is  the  cheapest  way 
of  supplying  the  soil  with  what  sulphur  is  required. 

Marl,  where  it  can  be  obtained,  may  be  applied  with 
advantage,  especially  to  sandy  soils.  It  is  generally  bene- 
ficial in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  lime  it  contains. 

Some  marls  contain  both  phosphate  of  lime  and  potash 
in  considerable  quantities,  and  hence  are  of  increased 


FERTILIZERS    AND    MANURES. 


59 


value.  Before  largely  applying  it,  experiments  should  be 
made  on  a  small  scale,  as  some  marls,  upon  trial,  are 
found  to  be  injurious. 

Charcoal  renders  the  soil  light  and  friable,  gives  it  a 
dark  color,  and  additional  warmth  for  early  crops.  The 
bed  whereon  charcoal  has  been  burnt  is  always  marked 
by  a  most  vigorous  growth  of  plants  when  it  becomes 
sufficiently  mixed  with  earth.  It  contains  also  small 
quantities  of  salts  of  potash  and  other  fertilizing  salts. 

It  absorbs  both  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  from  the 
air,  and  yields  them  to  the  roots  of  plants.  It  is  most 
marked  in  its  effects  on  plants  which  require  abundant 
nitrogen.  As  it  is  indestructible,  its  beneficial  effects 
last  as  long  as  it  remains  in  the  soil,  supplying  the  root- 
lets of  plants  with  carbonic  acid,  which  is  renewed  as  fast 
as  abstracted.  Its  good  effects  begin  to  be  seen  when  the 
dust  is  applied  at  the  rate  of  forty  bushels  per  acre.  Char- 
coal is  invaluable  for  destroying  the  odor  of  decaying 
animal  matter,  retaining  all  the  gases  in  its  own  sub- 
stance ready  to  yield  them  up  for  the  use  of  plants. 
Hence,  the  best  application  of  this  substance  is  not 
directly  to  the  soil,  but  to  compost  it  with  putrescent 
animal  matters,  urine  or  night  soil,  of  which  it  will  ab- 
sorb all  the  odor  and  fertilizing  gases  given  off  during 
their  decomposition.  Composted  with  the  last-named  sub- 
stance, it  becomes  poudrette,  and  is  second  only  to  guano 
as  a  fertilizer. 

In  striking  cuttings  or  potting  plants,  fine  charcoal  is  a 
valuable  substitute  for  sand,  plants  rooting  in  it  with 
great  certainty.  Plants  will  flourish  in  powdered  char- 
coal alone  with  considerable  vigor,  and,  added  to  the 
other  materials  used  in  potting,  it  is  found  greatly  to  pro- 
mote healthy  growth  in  most  plants. 

Fine  charcoal  can  be  obtained  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties from  the  old  hearths  where  it  has  been  burned;  also 


60  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

from  the  refuse  of  smiths*  shops,  founderies,  and  machine 
shops.  All  the  refuse  of  the  garden  that  will  not  decay, 
pea-brush,  trimmings  of  trees,  cabbage  and  corn-stalks, 
together  with  tan-bark,  sawdust,  and  fresh  shavings, 
may  be  collected,  the  coarser  materials  placed  at  the  bot- 
tom and  set  on  fire  when  the  heap  is  building,  then 
covered  with  the  finer.  After  beating  all  well  together,  it 
should  be  covered  well  with  short,  moist  rubbish,  weeds 
and  (dods.  Bermuda  grass  turf  is  the  best  material  for 
this  purpose  if  you  are  troubled  with  it,  and  it  is  better  if 
it  has  been  obtained  from  a  clayey  loam.  After  the  heap 
is  well  on  fire,  clayey  turf,  together  with  the  clay  of  the 
soil,  may  be  added  to  the  top,  and  a  large  quantity  of  the 
charcoal  mixed  with  burnt  clay  is  thus  prepared.  At  first 
there  is  great  difficulty  in  keeping  the  piles  on  fire,  and 
strict  attention  is  required.  Thrust  a  stake  in  different 
places,  that  the  fire  may  run  through  the  entire  heap,  and 
if  it  breaks  out  in  any  of  these,  stop  them  anew  with  rub- 
bish and  brush,  cover  with  earth,  and  make  holes  in  new 
places.  When  the  smoke  subsides  the  heap  is  charred 
enough.  When  finished  and  the  fire  put  out  store  it  up  for 
use.  The  mixture  thus  prepared  has  been  found  beneficial 
in  every  instance,  and  is  a  most  valuable  manure,  espe- 
cially for  roses,  producing  invariably  an  abundance  of 
fibrous  roots,  clean,  healthy,  vigorous  growth,  and  luxu- 
riant blooms.    {Paul.) 

Besides  charcoal,  there  are  many  other  vegetable  sub 
stance's  of  great  value  as  absorbents  of  the  fertilizing 
salts  and  gases  that  would  otherwise  escape  from  animal 
manures.  Carbonaceous  matter  of  every  sort  should  be 
provided  for  this  purpose.  Gather  the  leaves  of  trees  of 
all  kinds,  including  pine  straw.  They  contain  many  sub- 
stances necessary  for  the  growth  of  the  plants  from  which 
they  fall,  or  available  to  other  plants.  Throw  them  into 
the  stables  and  yards,  moisten  them  and  sprinkle  them 


FERTILIZERS    AND    MANURES. 


61 


with  the  lime  and  salt  mixture,  and  if  kept  in  a  damp 
state  and  turned  over  once  or  twice,  they  form  the  best 
manure  known  for  all  kinds  of  trees  and  shrubs,  and 
indeed  afford  all  the  necessary  constituents,  organic  and 
inorganic,  of  all  cultivated  plants. 

Swamp  Muck  is  another  valuable  absorbent.  Gather 
the  black  earth  of  swamps,  place  in  piles  and  let  it  dry 
out  the  superfluous  moisture,  and  haul  it  to  the  compost 
heap  or  yard.  Swamp  muck,  by  its  elasticity,  keeps  the 
soil  light  and  open,  and  is  excellent  both  for  absorbing 
and  retaining  moisture  therein.  It  may  be  reduced  with 
ashes  or  lime,  either  of  which  will  destroy  all  its  naturally 
acid  properties.  The  salt  and  lime  mixture  is  the  best 
and  usually  the  cheapest  for  this  purpose,  but  leached 
ashes  mixed  with  carbonaceous  matter  have  an  additional 
part  of  their  potash  rendered  soluble  and  available  for 
plants,  and  should  be  used  thus  where  obtainable. 

The  Lime  and  Salt  Mixture  is  thus  prepared:  Take 
three  bushels  of  unslaked  lime,  dissolve  a  bushel  of  salt 
in  as  little  water  as  possible,  and  slake  the  lime  there- 
with. If  the  lime  will  not  take  up  all  the  brine  at  once 
(which  it  will  if  good  and  fresh  burned),  add  a  little  more 
of  the  brine  daily,  turning  and  adding  until  all  is  taken 
up.  Keep  it  under  cover  until  wanted  for  use.  Of  itself  it 
supplies  plants  with  chlorine,  lime  and  soda,  and  acts  like 
lime  or  ashes  in  reducing  stubborn  vegetable  matters  and 
correcting  their  acid  properties. 

With  a  load  of  swamp  earth,  mix  a  bushel  and  a  half 
of  the  lime  and  salt  mixture  intimately  while  it  is  in  a 
moderately  moist  state,  and  in  thirty  days  it  will  be 
decomposed.  Upon  a  layer  of  this  earth  six  inches  thick, 
spread  a  coat  of  fresh  stable  manure,  each  day  covering  it 
with  ten  times  its  quantity  of  prepared  muck,  which  will 
absorb  all  the  gases  and  salts.  Let  the  pile  accumulate 
until  four  feet  high,  and  then  turn  it  all  over,  mix  it  again, 


GABDENING    FOR    TIIK    SOUTH. 


and  cover  the  whole  with  a  thick  coat  of  prepared  muck. 
If  too  dry  to  ferment  add  water,  and  in  three  weeks  it 
will  be  fit  for  use,  and  will  be  found  equal  to  common 
stable  manure,  and  is  entirely  free  from  insects  of  all 
kinds.  In  reducing  composts  of  all  kinds,  the  heap  must 
be  kept  moist  or  no  fermentation  will  be  produced.  Keep- 
ing it  "always  moist  but  never  leached"  is  the  way  to 
produce  a  strong  compost. 

A  thick  layer  of  the  muck  should  be  kept  also  in  the 
hog-peus  and  stables  to  absorb  the  urine,  removing  the 
solid  manure  from  the  latter  daily,  aud  the  muck  at  the 
end  of  each  week.  Upon  this  muck  also  the  house  slops 
of  all  kinds  should  be  poured,  and  where  charcoal  is  not 
employed,  a  bushel  every  three  days  should  be  thrown 
into  the  privy  to  destroy  the  offensive  gases  produced. 
The  muck,  whether  prepared  with  the  above  mixture, 
with  ashes  or  lime,  will  retain  all  the  virtues  of  the  ani- 
mal manure.  Neither  lime  nor  ashes,  unless  in  excess, 
when  thus  combined  with  vegetable  matters,  will  drive 
off  the  ammonia. 

Leaf-Mould,  or  the  black  surface  soil  of  the  woods,  is 
of  still  more  value.  This  is  free  from  the  acid  properties 
of  swamp  muck,  and  may  be  supplied  directly  to  most 
plants  in  the  flower  garden,  many  of  which  will  not 
flourish  unless  this  material  is  present  in  the  soil.  It  is  of 
still  more  importance  for  potting  plants  in  the  green- 
house. For  the  kitchen  and  fruit  garden  it  is  best  com- 
posted, like  swamp  muck,  with  fresh  animal  manure.  It  is 
indispensable  in  garden  culture. 

Tan-Bark  is  another  material  abounding  in  carbon, 
which  may,  to  some  extent,  be  used  as  an  absorbent  of 
animal  manure.  It  may  be  beneficially  applied  directly 
to  strawberries,  to  which  it  answers  the  double  purpose 
of  mulching  and  manure.  But  the  crowns  of  the  plants 
must  not  be  covered;  and  for  all  purposes  it  should  be 


FERTILIZERS    AND    MANURES. 


63 


obtained  as  much  decomposed  as  possible.  Tan  may  be 
applied  directly  to  Irish  potatoes  when  ready  to  cover  in 
the  furrow.  After  they  are  dropped  and  the  manure 
applied,  a  coat  of  old  tan,  composted  with  ashes  or  the 
lime  and  salt  mixture,  may  be  given,  and  the  planting 
finished  by  covering  this  with  earth.  It  improves  the 
yield  materially  and  the  quality  also,  as  all  carbonaceous 
matters  do.  Where  swamp  muck  or  leaf-mould  can  be 
obtained,  it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  use  tan  as  an 
absorbent  of  animal  manures. 

It  is  not  of  sufficient  value  to  be  worth  hauling  far.  In 
trenching,  it  may,  with  other  coarse  matters,  be  mixed 
with  the  bottom  soil  to  lighten  its  texture  and  act  as  a 
reservoir  of  moisture.  For  corn  it  may,  after  composting 
with  ashes,  be  mixed  with  the  surface  soil,  when,  if  not  in 
excess,  it  will  be  of  some  service  to  the  crop. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  reduce,  but  if  kept  moist,  the  lime 
and  salt  mixture  will  do  it.  It  may  be  strewed  in  the 
stock-yard  six  or  eight  inches  thick,  and  sprinkled  pretty 
thickly  with  the  mixture.  The  treading  of  the  stock  will 
mix  it.  Let  the  whole  be  turned  over  in  a  moist  state 
once  or  twice,  and  in  the  course  of  the  winter  it  will  be- 
come a  valuable  application  to  the  plants  that  do  well 
with  fresh  manure.  There  are  abundant  elements  of  fer- 
tility in  tan,  but  it  is  more  difficult  to  render  them  avail- 
able than  with  any  other  vegetable  substance;  and  it  is, 
upon  the  whole,  quite  a  dangerous  article  to  experiment 
with.  Reduced  thoroughly  by  composting  it  with  stable 
manure,  using  in  this  case  no  lime,  and  then  mixed  with 
decayed  leaves  and  plenty  of  sharp  sand,  it  makes  a  toler- 
able compost  for  growing  those  plants  which  require 
peat,  such  as  Azaleas  and  Rhododendrons.  Tan,  properly 
composted,  will  prove  of  most  use  in  light  soils  deficient 
in  vegetable  matter,  and  when  less  decomposed,  for  open- 
ing the  texture  of  close,  heavy  clays. 


64  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Decayed  chips,  sawdust,  shavings,  etc.,  are  best  applied 
to  Irish  potatoes,  as  directed  in  the  case  of  tan-bark. 
They  should  be  covered  with  soil  to  promote  a  more 
speedy  decay.  They  have  much  the  nature  of  tan-bark 
without  its  acidity,  and  may  be  likewise,  when  somewhat 
decayed,  composted  with  stable  manure  and  used  as  peat. 
All  these  substances  are  valuable  for  burning  clay  or  for 
charring,  and  afterwards  incorporating  them  with  urine, 
night  soil,  or  superphosphate  of  lime.  In  the  case  of  tan- 
bark,  this  is  undoubtedly  the  safest  and  most  profitable 
way  to  use  it. 

Green  Manures  are  various  crops,  raised  to  turn  into 
the  ground  in  a  fresh  state  for  fertilizing  it.  For  this  pur- 
pose all  the  weeds  of  the  garden  should  be  employed 
while  green.  Over  any  vacant  spots  in  the  garden  not 
wished  to  be  used  in  autumn,  rye  or  barley  can  be  sown, 
which  will  keep  the  soil  from  washing,  and  when  large 
enough  may  be  either  cut  for  feed,  or  turned  into  the  soil 
as  the  plots  are  wanted  for  use.  Spinach  should  be  sown 
in  considerable  quantities,  as  it  grows  all  winter,  and, 
spaded  into  the  soil  in  spring,  adds  a  good  deal  to  its  fer- 
tility. The  seed  can  be  saved  in  any  quantity  with  little 
trouble. 

But  the  most  fertilizing  plants  for  this  purpose  are 
leguminous  plants,  like  the  Cowpea,  as  they  draw  nour- 
ishment largely  from  the  atmosphere,  and  afford  a  great 
amount  of  foliage  for  turning  under  as  manure.  This 
class  of  plants  is  also  quite  rich  in  ammonia. 

Animal  Manures. — This  is  the  most  important  class, 
and  the  greatest  attention  should  be  paid  to  collecting, 
preserving,  and  economizing  them.  All  animal  manures, 
when  compared  with  the  preceding  class,  are  more  rich  in 
nitrogen,  and  more  easily  decomposed  and  rendered 
soluble;  but  though  the  effect  of  this  class  of  substances 
is  much  more  obvious,  it  is  not  so  lasting. 


FERTILIZERS    AND    MANURES.  65 

Its  value  consists  in  part  of  certain  volatile  and  soluble 
substances,  which,  in  the  common  mode  of  preserving 
manure,  are  dissipated  in  the  air  or  washed  away  by 
heavy  rains.  In  this  climate  it  is  necessary  to  shelter 
manure  from  the  sun  and  rain.  All  animal  matter  is 
either  directly  or  indirectly  derived  from  vegetable  sub- 
stances; hence,  every  portion  of  the  same  that  can  be 
rendered  soluble  is  a  valuable  food  for  plants.  Among 
the  most  important  animal  substances  employed  as  ma- 
nures are  urine,  and  dung  of  all  kinds.  The  first  of  these 
is  almost  invariably  wasted,  though  in  the  case  of  the 
cow,  it  is  of  more  value  than  the  solid  excrements.  It 
should  be  carefully  saved  by  bedding  the  yard  and  stables 
with  swamp  muck,  wood  earth,  or  some  other  absorbent. 
Urine  is  particularly  rich  in  ammonia.  This  may  be  ab- 
sorbed by  the  muck  or  by  sprinkling  the  floor  of  stables 
and  the  manure  heap  frequently  with  fine  charcoal  or 
gypsum.  This  substance,  sprinkled  upon  the  floors  of 
stables,  forms  a  compound  like  the  urate  of  commerce, 
so  powerful  that  five  hundred  pounds  will  amply  manure 
an  acre.  If  you  can  obtain  no  other  absorbent,  tan-bark 
is  not  without  its  value,  but  the  weeds,  sweepings  of 
walks,  and  other  refuse  of  the  garden,  particularly  leaf- 
mould  and  the  dark  top-soil  of  pastures,  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred. Urine  may  be  diluted  with  three  times  its  bulk  of 
water  and  permitted  to  grow  stale,  and  be  applied  at 
night  or  in  moist  weather  directly  to  the  growing  crops. 

The  principal  animal  manures  are  those  of  the  horse, 
the  hog,  the  cow,  and  the  sheep.  Of  these  horse  manure 
is  most  valuable  in  its  fresh  state.  That  of  the  hog  comes 
next,  then  that  of  the  ox,  while  the  cow  is  at  the  bottom 
of  the  list,  because  most  of  the  enriching  substances  in 
her  food  go  to  the  formation  of  milk,  leaving  the  manure 
comparatively  weakened.  The  richer  the  food  given  to 
animals,  the  more  powerful  is  the  manure.  If  animal 
5 


66  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

manures  are  employed  in  a  fresh  state,  they  should  be 
mixed  intimately  with  the  soil,  and  given  to  such  coarse 
feeding  crops  as  corn  and  the  garden  pea.  But  nearly  all 
plants  do  better  if  the  manure  is  composted  and  fully 
fermented  before  use.  Pig  manure,  used  alone,  is  con- 
sidered pernicious  to  the  growth  of  the  cabbage  and 
turnip  tribe,  and  gives  an  unpleasant  taste  to  many  other 
vegetables,  but  composted  with  muck  or  mould,  it  is 
much  more  beneficial  as  well  as  more  durable. 

In  managing  animal  manures,  decomposition  must  be 
promoted;  the  volatile  parts  must  be  preserved  from  dis- 
sipation in  the  air,  and  the  soluble  portions  from  being 
washed  out  by  rains.  That  it  may  ferment,  it  must  be 
kept  in  a  bod}-,  that  heat  ma}-  be  generated  and  its  natural 
moisture  retained,  while  beneath  it  a  layer  of  some  ab- 
sorbent substance  should  be  placed,  to  receive  and  retain 
its  soluble  parts,  and  as  fast  at  it  is  thrown  from  the 
stable  it  should  be  covered  with  layers  of  muck  to  retain 
the  ammonia.  Horse  manure,  especially,  should  not  be 
exposed  at  all ;  it  begins  to  heat  and  lose  ammonia  almost 
immediately,  as  may  be  perceived  by  the  smell.  Mix  it 
with  other  manures  and  cover  it  with  absorbents  as  soon 
as  possible.  Keep  the  stable  bedded  with  muck,  and  over 
this  a  good  bed  of  leaves. 

The  Manure  of  Birds  is  richer  than  that  of  any  other 
animals;  as  the  solid  and  liquid  excrements  are  mixed 
together,  it  is  particularly  rich  in  nitrogen  and  the  phos- 
phates. Three  or  four  hundred  weight  of  the  manure  of 
pigeons,  fowls,  turkeys,  etc.,  is  of  equal  value  with  from 
fourteen  to  eighteen  loads  of  animal  manure. 

Night  Soil  and  chamber  slops  should  be  composted  as 
before  directed  with  charcoal,  or  the  black  mould  from 
woods.  (Jypsum  may  be  added  to  the  mixture;  all  smell 
is  thus  destroyed,  and  an  offensive  nuisance  is  converted 
into  a  valuable  application  to  any  crop.  Where  charcoal 


FERTILIZERS    AND    MANURES.  67 

is  freely  used,  this  substance  becomes  perfectly  inodorous. 
Guano  and  poudrette  are  the  best  possible  manures  for 
the  cabbage  tribe  and  other  plants  that  need  phosphates 
and  nitrogen.  Both  these  manures  are  exceedingly  power- 
ful, but  their  effects  do  not  last  beyond  one  season.  The 
fertilizing  properties  exist  in  the  right  proportions  to  be 
taken  up  at  once  by  the  plants,  and  nearly  all  their  nutri- 
tive properties  are  exhausted  the  season  they  are  applied. 
If  in  a  hole  or  dry  ditch  are  deposited  all  the  leaves  or 
vegetable  refuse  that  can  be  collected,  and  over  this  is 
poured  daily  the  house  slops,  and  all  smell  prevented  by 
the  timely  application  of  charcoal  or  woods  earth,  a  com- 
post is  formed  exactly  similar  in  its  constituents  to  farm- 
yard manure,  and  containing  all  the  eight  substances  by 
which  plants  are  artificially  fed.   (Lindley.) 

Liquid  Manure. — Almost  any  manure  may  be  applied 
to  the  soil  with  benefit  in  a  liquid  state.  Liquid  manure 
generally  implies  urine  or  the  drainings  of  dung  heaps 
and  stables,  chiefly  consisting  of  urine  and  the  dissolved 
excrements  of  animals.  Diluted  more  or  less  as  required, 
it  can  be  applied  about  once  a  week  to  plants  in  any  stage 
of  growth,  ami  is  particularly  useful  to  those  grown  in 
pots.  The  soil  should  not  be  oversaturated  with  it,  and  it 
should  be  used  alternately  with  pure  water.  Do  not  give 
it  to  plants  that  are  in  a  state  of  rest. 

Composts. — The  composting  of  manure  should  take 
place,  as  a  general  thing,  as  fast  as  it  is  made.  In  the 
garden,  out  of  sight,  there  should  be  a  compost  heap  for 
receiving  all  kinds  of  rubbish  that  can  have  the  least 
value  as  fertilizers.  Make  a  shallow  excavation  of  a 
square  or  oblong  form,  with  the  bottom  sloping  to  one 
end.  Into  this  collect  the  litter  and  sweepings  of  the 
yards,  decayed  vegetables  of  all  kinds,  brine,  soapsuds, 
and  slops  from  the  house,  woollen  rags,  leaves,  green 
weeds,  and  garden  refuse.     After  it  has  accumulated  a 


68  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

little,  turn  it  over,  adding  a  little  of  the  salt  and  lime 
mixture,  and  keep  the  whole  inodorous  by  covering  it 
with  rich  mould  or  black  earth  from  the  woods.  If  the 
heap  is  formed  entirely  of  vegetable  materials,  ashes  or 
lime  should  be  added;  but  if  it  contain  animal  matter, 
they  would  do  harm  by  setting  free  the  ammonia.  The 
heap  should  not  be  deep,  but,  like  all  other  manure  heaps, 
should  be  kept  "always  moist,  but  never  leached,"  by  the 
addition  of  liquids  from  the  house  and  kitchen.  If  this 
compost  be  for  a  sandy  soil,  the  addition  of  clay  would  be 
very  beneficial. 

Composting  is  the  best  way  of  rendering  available  all 
sorts  of  refuse  organic  matter,  but  do  not  introduce  those 
antagonistic  in  their  effects.  For  instance,  never  compost 
lime  with  animal  matters  which,  in  their  decomposition, 
form  ammonia. 

Special  Composts  are  prepared  for  different  species  of 
plants,  and  they  are  of  great  utility  in  floriculture.  Com- 
posts for  plants  in  pots  are  made  up  of  loam,  leaf-mould, 
sand,  peat,  and  manure.  The  loam  is  the  decomposed 
turf  from  a  rich,  old  pasture,  which  should  not  rest  upon 
clay,  and  the  upper  three  inches  only  are  taken.  It 
should  lie  one  year  before  using.  Leaf-mould  is  the  dark 
surface  soil  of  the  woods,  formed  from  decayed  leaves. 
Sand  should  not  be  from  roads:  use  fine  surface  or  river 
sand.  The  manure  is  unfit  to  use  if  less  than  a  year  old, 
and  improves  by  frequent  turning,  and  lying  two  years. 
Peat  is  the  black  soil  from  swamps,  mingled  with  very 
fine  sand.  It  should  be  exposed  a  year  and  frequently 
turned  before  using.  Black  woods  earth,  mingled  with 
one-third  pure  sand,  is  the  best  substitute.  The  propor- 
tions of  the  most  common  composts  are  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing table: 


FERTILIZERS    AND    MANURES. 


69 


Number  of 
Compost. 

Loam. 

Leaf- 
mould. 

Sand. 

Prat. 

Manurt . 

j 

1 

3 

2 

3 

2 

1 

1 

3 

3 

1 

1 

1 

4 

1 

•2 

5 

4 

4 

1 

0 

4 

1 

1 

7 

3 

2 

1 

8 

4 

2 

1 

9 

1 

1 

i 

111 

1 

1 

1 

i 

The  essential  elements  of  plant  food — viz.,  potash, 
nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid — may  now  be  purchased  in 
the  markets  combined  in  proportions  to  suit  all  demands, 
as  complete  or  partial  manures.  A  short  discussion  of 
their  origin  and  properties  is  not  out  of  place  in  a  book 
of  this  character. 

1.— POTASH. 


The  German  deposits  of  crude  potash  salts  furnish  the 
largest  supply  of  this  important  fertilizer  to  the  markets 
of  the  world.  The  chief  forms  in  which  these  salts  occur 
in  the  mines  are  sulphate  and  nitrate  (chloride)  and 
kainit,  which  is  a  combination  of  chlorides  of  magnesium 
and  sodium,  magnesium  sulphate  and  potassium  sul- 
phate. The  kainit  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
commercial  fertilizers  containing  potash.  The  ashes  from 
cotton-seed  hulls  is  a  valuable  source  of  potash,  and  a 
good  market  for  this  southern  product  has  been  created 
within  the  past  few  years  since  the  sale  of  cotton-seed  oil 
has  become  such  an  important  item.  The  hulls,  after 
extracting  the  interior  of  the  seeds,  are  used  for  fuel  in 
the  manufacture  of  oil,  and  the  resulting  ashes  are 
sacked  and  sold  for  fertilizers.  When  the  hull  ashes  are 
mixed  with  "nitrogenous  organic  materials  great  caution 
is  to  be  observed,  since  mixtures  of  this  kind,  if  kept  for 
any  length  of  time,  especially  if  allowed  to  become  moist, 


ro 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


are  likely  to  ferment  with  consequent  loss  of  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  nitrogen.''* 

Cotton-seed-hull  ashes  contain  besides  potash  seven  to 
eight  per  cent,  of  available  phosphoric  acid,  thus  making 
this  fertilizer  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  the  reach  of  the 
southern  planter. 

Table  Giving  Approximate  Amount  of  Potash  in  Fertilizing  Materials.^ 


Mali  rials  Containing   Potash. 


Carnallite 

Cotton-seed-hull  ashes 

Kainit 

Krugite 

Muriate  of  potash 

Nitrate  of  potash 

Sulphate  of  potash  (low  grade). 
Sulphate  of  potash  (high  grade) 

Wood  ashes  (unleached) 

Wood  ashes  (leached) 


I\  r   I't  ill.  ,,f 
Actual  Potash. 


13    tn  11 

15  to  25 

12  to  14 

8  to  9 

50  to  53 

•13  to  44 

28  to  30 

18  to  53 

1   to  8 

1   to  3 


I'minils   of  Actual 

Potash    in    :  a  n  n 
lbs  of  Mali  rial. 


260  to  280 

300  to  500 

240  to  280 

160  to  ISO 

L000  to  1060 

sen  to  880 

560  to  600 

960  to  1020 

80  to  160 

20  to  60 


2.— NITROGEN. 

Nitrogen  is  derived  from  several  sources — viz.: 

1. — Mineral  nitrogen  compounds. 

2. — Vegetable  nitrogen  compounds. 

3. — Animal  nitrogen  compounds. 

4. — From  the  air  by  certain  growing  plants. 

The  compounds  of  the  first  group  generally  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  commercial  fertilizers  are  known  as 
sulphate  of  ammonia  and  nitrate  of  soda.  The  first  results 
from  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas,  and  yields  a 
high  percentage  of  nitrogen.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  obtained 
from  the  mines  in  Chili  and  Peru,  and  is  known  in  the 
markets  as  "Chili  salpetre."  Its  condition  when  mined  is 
impure,  containing  a  large  percentage  of  common  salt, 
bat  before  shipment  the  crude  product  is  purified  and 

*  "  Fertilizers — Commercial    and    Domestic,"    B.    B.   Ross,    Alabama 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  63,  page  86. 
fGeneva  (N.  Y.)  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  94,  page  324. 


FERTILIZERS    AND    MANURES. 


71 


concentrated  by  leaching  until  the  article  which  is  sold 
in  the  United  States  produces  as  much  as  ninety-five  per 
cent,  of  nitrate  of  soda,  or  fifteen  to  sixteen  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen  in  an  available  form. 

In  the  Southern  States  we  have  a  most  excellent  source 
of  nitrogen  in  cotton  seed  and  cotton-seed  meal,  which 
are  probably  the  most  important  of  nitrogen-producing 
substances.  The  abundance  of  cotton  seeds  in  the  cotton 
region  supply  a  cheap  origin  for  nitrogen  for  the  Southern 
gardeners,  and  the  value  of  the  seed  is  greatly  enhanced 
from  the  fact  that  the  two  other  important  plant  foods 
are  found  in  them  in  quantities  of  about  three  per  cent, 
of  the  former  and  two  per  rout,  of  the  latter. 

The  animal  origin  of  nitrogen  is  dried  blood,  fish  scraps, 
tankage  and  other  waste  products  from  slaughter-housos. 
The  blood  is  dried  by  steam,  and  yields  from  nine  to 
fifteen  per  cent,  nitrogen.  The  fish  scraps  also  supply 
large  quantities  of  phosphoric  acid. 

Table  Giving  Approximate  Amount  of  Nitrogen  in  Fertilizing  Material.* 


Materials  Containing  Nitrogen. 

Ir,  ,.,,„,     /,, ,.        Pounds  of  Ni- 

f'cnt.Xitroorn.l     ''""■"".'''"     '■'.""' 
lbs.  of  Material. 

(1)  Mineral  materials. 

25  to  26 

13  to  14 
15  to  16 
19  to  20J4 

6  to    7 

2  to     2>2 

10  to  12 
10  to  15 

7  to     8 

14  to  16 
10  to  12 

7  to     8 
10  to  12 
7  to    9 

r,i«i  to  520 
'Jtin  to  280 
810  to  320 
380  to  410 

120  to  140 

in  to    50 

200  to  240 
200  to  3(10 
ll(i  to  160 
280  to  320 
200  to  240 
140  to  160 
20(1  to  240 
140  to  180 

Nitrate  of  potash 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Sulphate  of  ammonia 

(2)  Vegetable  materials. 

(.'!)  Animal  materials. 

Dried  fish 

Meat  scraps 

Nitrogenous  guanos 

Oleomargarine  refuse        . 

*Geneva    (N.   Y.)    Agricultural   Experiment   Station   Bulletin   No.   94. 
page  315. 


IZ  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

When  peas,  clovers,  and  other  leguminous  plants  are 
cultivated  they  have  the  power  of  drawing  from  the 
atmosphere  abundance  of  nitrogen  by  means  of  the 
peculiar  construction  of  their  roots.  If  a  healthy,  vigor- 
ously growing  pea-plant  is  carefully  drawn  from  the  soil 
and  the  roots  washed,  a  large  number  of  small  tubercles 
or  enlargements  will  be  noticed  varying  in  size  over  all 
rootlets.  These  are  storehouses  of  minute  germs  which 
have  the  power  of  extracting  from  the  atmosphere  quan- 
tities of  nitrogen,  which  is  absorbed  by  the  plant.  When 
the  plant  is  turned  under  the  soil  it  not  only  supplies  the 
needed  organic  matter,  but  also,  in  its  decay,  leaves  in 
the  soil  the  nitrogen  extracted  from  the  air  by  the  germs 
developed  in  its  roots.  Under  these  conditions  it  is  pos- 
sible to  secure  from  the  air  one  of  the  most  expensive 
fertilizers. 

3.— PHOSPHORIC  ACID. 

The  apparent  effect  of  phosphates  applied  to  the  soil 
is  to  stimulate  vegetation  and  to  promote  the  formation 
of  roots.  If  used  for  the  drainage  of  pots  in  the  form  of 
broken  bones,  or  at  the  bottom  of  vine  borders,  the  roots 
soon  find  their  way  down  to,  and  extract  nutriment  from 
them. 

The  phosphates,  like  all  other  plant  food,  to  be  of  ser- 
vice, must  be  within  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  plants. 
Fertility  is  not  to  be  measured  by  the  quantity  of  plant 
food  a  soil  contains,  but  only  by  that  portion  which  exists 
in  a  finely  divided  state,  as  it  is  only  with  such  portions 
that  the  rootlets  of  plants  can  come  in  close  contact.  An 
ounce  of  bone  in  a  cubic  foot  of  soil  produces  no  marked 
effect  upon  its  fertility  if  unbroken.  Dissolve  it  and  let 
it  be  distributed  through  the  soil,  and  it  will  suffice  for 
the  food  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  wheat  plants.  The 
most  abundant  application  of  earthy  phosphates  in  coarse 
powder  can,  in  its  effects,  bear  no  comparison  with  a 


FERTILIZEES    AND    MANURES.  73 

much  less  quantity,  which,  in  a  state  of  minute  subdi- 
vision, is  dispersed  through  every  part  of  the  soil.  A  root- 
let requires,  where  it  touches  the  soil,  a  most  minute 
portion  of  food,  but  it  is  necessary  for  its  very  existence 
that  this  minute  supply  should  be  at  that  precise  spot. 
(Liebig.) 

Dr.  L.  L.  Van  Slyke,  chemist  of  the  Geneva  (New  York) 
Agricultural  Station,  gives  the  following  excellent  ac- 
count of  the  origin  of  phosphoric  acid  in  Bulletin  No.  91, 
New  Series,  pages  315  to  321: 

"Phosphoric  acid  is  generally  found  in  combination 
with  lime  (calcium),  forming,  at  least,  three  different 
compounds — viz. : 

1.  Insoluble  phosphate  of  lime. 

2.  Soluble  phosphate  of  lime. 

3.  Eeverted  phosphate  of  lime. 

1.— INSOLUBLE  PHOSPHATE  OF  LIME. 

"This  is  known  under  several  other  names,  as  insoluble 
calcium  phosphate,  normal  calcium  phosphate,  tri-cal- 
cium  phosphate,  bone  phosphate  of  lime,  etc. 

"This  form  of  calcium  phosphate  is  called  insoluble 
because  it  does  not  dissolve  in  water. 

"It  is  found  in  nature  in  large  quantities  in  several 
minerals,  which  will  be  noticed  later.  It  also  constitutes 
about  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  the  ash  or  inorganic  matter 
of  bones.  It  is  also  contained  in  the  excrement  of  animals, 
as  in  guano,  etc. 

"Insoluble  phosphate  of  lime  is  found  everywhere  in 
the  soil.  However,  in  this  form,  calcium  phosphate  has 
the  least  value  for  the  farmer,  because  it  is  not  easily 
dissolved,  and  cannot,  therefore,  be  taken  up  and  used 
by  the  plants,  except  very  slowly.  To  make  the  insoluble 
phosphate  available  for  plants  so  that  they  can  take  it  up 


74  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

the  insoluble  phosphate  must  be  converted  into  some 
form  which  is  soluble — that  is,  which  dissolves  in  water. 
This  can  be  done  by  treating  it  with  sulphuric  acid  (oil 
of  vitriol). 

2.— SOLUBLE  PHOSPHATE  OF  LIME. 

"This  is  known  under  several  other  names,  as  acid  phos- 
phate of  lime,  acid  calcium  phosphate,  acid  phosphate, 
superphosphate  of  lime,  superphosphate,  mono  calcium 
phosphate,  etc.     It  is  not  found  actually  occurring. 

"As  indicated  above,  the  soluble  calcium  phosphate  is 
made  by  treating  the  insoluble  calcium  phosphate  with 
sulphuric  acid.  By  this  treatment  a  portion  of  the  cal- 
cium is  removed  from  the  phosphate  and  unites  with  the 
sulphuric  acid,  forming  calcium  sulphate  or  sulphate  of 
lime,  in  addition  to  the  soluble  phosphate.  This  mixture 
of  the  soluble  phosphate  and  sulphate  of  calcium  is 
known  as  superphosphate  of  lime.  The  phosphate  in  this 
form,  being  easily  soluble  in  water,  can  be  readily  taken 
up  by  plants,  and  is,  therefore,  of  great  value  as  a  fer- 
tilizer. The  sulphate  of  lime  is  also  known  to  have  value 
as  a  fertilizer.  In  plain  superphosphate  of  lime  there  are 
generally  formed  about  116  pounds  of  sulphate  of  lime 
for  each  100  pounds  of  soluble  phosphate  of  lime.  The 
value  of  superphosphates  depends  upon  the  amount  of 
soluble  phosphate  contained  in  them. 

3.— REVERTED  PHOSPHATE  OF  LIME. 

"Reverted  phosphate  of  lime  is  known  also  as  reverted 
calcium  phosphate,  precipitated  phosphate  of  lime,  di- 
calcium  phosphate,  citrate-soluble  phosphate,  etc. 

"When  soluble  phosphate  of  lime  is  allowed  to  stand 
for  some  time  it  will  happen  under  certain  conditions 
that  some  of  the  soluble  phosphate  is  changed  into  a  less 
soluble  form  of  phosphate.  This  is  not  the  same  form 
as  ordinary  insoluble  calcium  phosphate  above  described; 


FERTILIZERS    AND    MANURES.  <  '-> 

for  a  reverted  phosphate,  while  insoluble  in  water,  can 
be  readily  dissolved  by  weak  acids  or  by  water  containing 
carbonic  acid  or  salts  of  ammonia.  Since  the  soil  and 
plant  roots  generally  contain  acids  sufficiently  strong  to 
dissolve  reverted  phosphates,  phosphoric  acid  in  this  form 
is  generally  regarded  as  very  nearly  equal  to  soluble 
phosphates  in  value  as  a  fertilizer.  The  term  reverted 
was  introduced  to  express  the  fact  that  the  phosphoric 
acid  in  this  form  had  been  once  soluble  in  water,  but  that 
it  had  "reverted,"  or  gone  back,  to  a  form  insoluble  in 
water. 

"The  reverted  form  of  phosphoric  acid  is  often  found 
in  small  quantities  in  connection  with  insoluble  phos- 
phates, and  in  larger  amounts  in  guanos;  it  is  also  found 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  bones  and  other  forms  of 
organic  matter. 

"Summary:  Of  the  forms  of  phosphate  of  lime  which 
are  used  as  food  for  plants,  we  have — 

"First.  The  ordinary  insoluble  phosphate  of  lime,  which 
can  be  changed  by  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid  into — 

"Second.  The  soluble  phosphate  of  lime,  and  this,  on 
standing,  may,  under  certain  conditions,  undergo  change, 
forming — 

"Third.  The  reverted  phosphate  of  lime,  which  is  insolu- 
ble in  pure  water,  but  soluble  in  the  acids  of  the  soil  and 
plants,  and  in  the  water  containing  carbon  dioxide. 

"The  soluble  and  reverted  forms  of  phosphoric  acid, 
taken  together,  are  called  available  phosphoric  acid. 

"The  materials  which  furnish  the  greatest  proportions 
of  phosphoric  acid  used  in  making  fertilizers  are  the  fol- 
lowing: Bones,  bone-ash,  bone-black,  bone-meal,  phosphatic 
guano,  rock  phosphate,  superphosphate,  Thomas  slag,  etc. 

"Bones. — Bones  consist  of  two  quite  different  kinds  of 
material.  The  hard  portion  consists  mostly  of  calcium 
phosphate  or  phosphate  of  lime,  and  constitutes  from  one- 


76  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

half  to  three-fifths  of  the  weight  of  the  bone.  The  remain- 
ing portion  consists  largely  of  a  soft,  flesh-like  substance 
called  ossein,  or,  more  coniinonly,  gelatin.  It  is  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  entire  mass  of  bone,  and  is  rich 
in  nitrogen.  When  bones  are  burned,  the  nitrogenous 
matter  is  driven  off  and  only  the  mineral  portion,  or  phos- 
phate of  lime,  remains.  Bones,  such  as  are  used  in 
making  commercial  fertilizers,  contain  four  to  five  per 
cent,  nitrogen  and  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  per  cent, 
of  phosphoric  acid,  equivalent  to  forty-five  to  fifty-five 
per  cent,  of  phosphate  of  lime. 

"Bone-Ash. — As  the  name  implies,  bone-ash  is  made  by 
simply  burning  bones  in  the  open  air.  The  nitrogen,  of 
course,  is  driven  off  and  lost  in  burning,  and  the  chief 
constituent  is  insoluble  calcium  phosphate,  equivalent 
to  thirty  to  thirty-five  or  more  per  cent,  of  phosphoric 
acid. 

"Bone-Black,  known  also  as  bone-charcoal,  is  exten- 
sively used  in  refining  sugar.  After  it  has  been  used  sev- 
eral times,  portions  become  useless  for  refining  purposes, 
and  are  then  sold  for  fertilizers.  Bone-black  is  made  by 
heating  bones  in  closed  vessels,  the  air  being  excluded. 
By  heating  bones  in  this  manner  the  fat,  water,  and 
nitrogen  are  removed  from  the  bones,  and  the  bone-black 
remaining  consists  mainly  of  insoluble  calcium  phosphate 
and  carbon  or  charcoal.  The  presence  of  carbon  hinders 
the  decomposition  of  the  phosphate,  so  that  in  this  form, 
it  is  not  readily  available  as  food,  for  plants.  Good 
bone-black  may  contain  thirty  or  more  per  cent,  of  phos- 
phoric acid. 

"Bone-Meal  goes  under  various  names,  such  as  ground- 
bone,  bone-flour,  bone-dust,  etc.  We  find  in  the  market 
raic  bone-meal  and  steamed  bone-meal.  Raw  bone-meal 
contains  the  fat  naturally  present  in  bones.  The  presence 
of  the  fat  is  objectionable,  because  it  makes  the  grinding 


FERTILIZERS    AND    MANURES.  77 

more  difficult,  and  retards  the  decomposition  of  the  bones 
in  the  soil,  while  fat  itself  has  no  value  as  plant  food. 
When  bones  are  steamed  the  fat  is  removed,  and  the  bone 
is  more  readily  ground.  Moreover,  the  chemical  nature 
of  the  nitrogen  compounds  appears  to  be  changed  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  meal  undergoes  decomposition  in  the 
soil  more  rapidly  than  in  the  case  of  raw  bone.  The 
presence  of  easily  decaying  nitrogen  compounds  in  bone 
hastens,  in  the  process  of  decomposition,  to  dissolve  more 
or  less  of  the  insoluble  phosphate.  Bone-meal  should 
contain  from  three  to  five  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid;  about 
one-third  or  one-fourth  of  the  latter  appears  to  be  in 
readily  available  condition.  Raw  bone-meal  generally 
contains  somewhat  more  nitrogen  (one  to  two  per  cent.), 
and  rather  less  phosphoric  acid  than  steamed  bone-meal. 

"The  fineness  of  the  meal  affects  its  value;  the  finer 
the  meal  the  more  readily  available  it  is  for  plant  food. 
On  account  of  the  increased  demand  for  bone  for  various 
purposes,  and  on  account  of  their  increasing  value,  there 
is  considerable  tendency  to  adulterate  bone-meal  with  such 
substances  as  lime,  gypsum,  coal-ashes,  ground  oyster- 
shells,  ground  rock  phosphate,  etc. 

"Phosphatic  Guanos,  ok  Rock  Guanos. — Guanos 
generally  consist  chiefly  of  the  dung  of  sea-fowls,  though 
the  term  is  applied  to  other  animal  products.  They  are 
generally  found  in  beds  resembling  earthy  deposits.  The 
guanos  which  are  called  phosphates  contain  little  or  no 
nitrogen.  Their  phosphoric  acid  is  generally  in  the  form 
of  insoluble  phosphate  of  lime,  iron  and  alumina.  These 
guanos  come  mainly  from  certain  islands  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  and  from  Caribbean  Sea  and  West  India  Islands. 
The  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  in  different  guanos  is  very 
variable,  ranging  from  below  fifteen  to  over  thirty  per 
cent. 


78  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

"Rock  Phosphates  are  known  under  several  different 
names  which  generally  designate  the  locality  from  which 
they  come,  as  South  Carolina  Rock,  Florida  Rock,  Ten- 
nessee Rock,  West  India  Rock,  etc.  Other  mineral  phos- 
phates are  known  under  the  names  of  Apatite,  Coprolite 
and  Phosphorite,  which  are  found  iu  various  places  in 
America  and  Europe,  and  some  of  which  are  used  in 
making  commercial  fertilizers.  However,  the  greatest 
source  of  supply  of  phosphoric  acid  is  the  phosphate  rock 
of  our  Southern  States.  The  rock  phosphates  are  exten- 
sively used  in  making  superphosphates.  When  ground 
to  a  very  fine  flour-like  powder,  rock  phosphates  are 
called  "floats."  Rock  phosphates  contain  usually  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and 
some  as  much  as  thirty-five  to  forty  per  cent. 

"Superphosphates  are  known  under  several  different 
names,  such  as  acid  phosphates,  dissolved  bone,  dissolved 
rock,  etc.  Superphosphates  are  formed  by  treating  some 
form  of  insoluble  phosphate  of  lime,  as  rock  phosphate, 
bone,  bone-ash,  etc.,  with  sulphuric  acid.  By  this  treat- 
ment there  are  formed  soluble  phosphate  of  lime  and 
gypsum  (sulphate  of  lime)  in  nearly  equal  proportions. 
The  value  of  a  superphosphate  depends  upon  the  amount 
of  soluble  phosphate  of  lime  present  in  it,  together  with 
the  amount  of  reverted  phosphate  of  lime.  The  amount 
of  soluble  phosphoric  acid  compounds  in  superphosphates 
varies  with  the  kind  of  phosphate  used  in  making  the 
superphosphate  and  also  with  other  conditions,  which  we 
need  not  mention  here.  A  good  quality  of  dissolved  bone 
contains  twelve  to  eighteen  per  cent,  of  soluble  phos- 
phoric acid.  Dissolved  bone-black  contains  from  below 
fifteen  to  seventeen  per  cent,  of  soluble  phosphoric  acid. 
Superphosphate  made  from  rock  phosphate  may  contain 
from  twelve  to  eighteen  per  cent,  of  soluble  phosphoric 
acid. 


FERTILIZERS    AND    MANURES.  79 

"Thomas  Slag  is  more  familiarly  known  as  odorless  phos- 
phate It  is  also  known  under  several  other  names,  such 
as  basic  iron  slag,  Thomas  scoria,  phosphate  slag,  etc. 
This  is  a  comparatively  new  source  of  phosphoric  acid 
compounds.  It  is  a  by-product  formed  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  iron  and  steel  from  certain  kinds  of  iron  ore  con- 
taining phosphorus  compounds.  In  the  process  phos- 
phate of  lime  is  formed,  which  is  ground  to  a  fine 
powder."* 


*  Geneva,  N.  Y.  Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  No.  94,  pp.  315  to  321. 


SO  GARDENING   FOE    THE    SOUTH. 


CHAPTER    V. 

ROTATION   OF   CROPS. 


The  same  crops  cannot  be  grown  from  year  to  year 
upon  the  same  soil  without  decreasing  its  productiveness. 
All  plants  more  or  less. exhaust  the  soil,  but  not  in  the 
same  degree,  nor  in  the  same  manner;  hence,  as  different 
plants  appropriate  different  substances,  the  rotation  of 
crops  has  considerable  influence  in  retaining  the  fertility 
of  a  soil.  If  the  same  kind  of  plant  is  continued  upon 
the  same  soil,  only  a  portion  of  the  constituents  of  the 
manure  applied  is  used;  while  by  a  judicious  rotation 
everything,  in  the  soil  or  in  the  manure,  suitable  for  vege- 
table food,  is  taken  up  and  appropriated  by  the  crop. 
However  plentiful  manure  may  be,  a  succession  of  ex- 
hausting crops  should  not  be  grown  upon  the  same  bed, 
not  only  because  abundance  is  no  excuse  for  want  of 
economy,  but  because  manure  freshly  applied  is  not  so 
immediately  beneficial  as  those  remains  of  organized 
matter  which  by  long  continuance  in  the  soil  have  become1 
impalpably  divided  and  diffused  through  its  texture,  and 
of  which  each  succeeding  crop  consumes  a  portion. 

Some  crops  are  so  favorable  to  weeds,  that  if  continued 
long  upon  the  same  bed,  the  labor  of  cultivating  them  is 
much  increased,  while  if  raised  but  once  in  a  place  and 
followed  b}^  a  cleaning  crop,  the  weeds  are  easily  kept 
under.  Besides,  many  crops  planted  continually  in  the 
same  soil  are  more  liable  to  be  attacked  by  the  insects  and 
parasites  which  are  the  peculiar  enemies  of  those  plants. 

Many  insects  injurious  to  plants  deposit  their  eggs  in 
the  soil  which  produced  the  plants  they  have  infested, 
ready  to  commit  their  depredations  upon  the  succeeding 


ROTATION    OF    CROPS. 


81 


crop;  but  if  this  crop  is  changed  to  a  distant  locality,  they 
often  perish  for  want  of  their  proper  food.  So,  many 
parasites  leave  their  seeds  or  spores  in  the  soil,  to  the  in- 
creased injury  of  the  succeeding'  crop,  if  of  the  same 
species. 

Again,  different  plants  derive  their  principal  nourish 
ment  from  different  depths  of  soil.  The  roots  of  plants 
exhaust  only  the  portions  of  soil  with  which  they  come 
in  contact.  Perpendicular-rooted  plants  throw  out  few 
side  roots,  and  derive  most  of  their  nourishment  from  a 
considerable  depth,  while  fibrous-rooted  plants  seek  their 
food  near  the  surface.  Plants  of  the  same  species  extend 
their  roots  in  a  similar  direction,  and  occupy  and  exhaust 
the  same  strata  of  earth. 

Different  plants  by  means  of  their  roots  act  differently 
upon  the  physical  nature  of  the  soil.  Surface  roots  spread 
abroad  their  tufted  fibers,  which  in  their  decay  break  up 
and  lighten  the  surface  soil,  while  perpendicular  roots 
have  a  somewhat  similar  effect  upon  the  deeper  strata. 

The  most  exhausting  crops  are,  in  general,  those  which 
are  allowed  to  perfect  their  seeds,  as  they  extract  from 
the  soil  all  the  essentials  of  the  plant,  from  the  root  to  the 
seed.  The  seeds  of  many  species  draw  from  the  soil  more 
of  its  ammonia,  phosphates,  etc.,  than  is  drawn  by  all 
other  parts  of  the  plant.  Root  crops  are  generally  less 
exhausting,  and  plants  cultivated  for  their  leaves  are 
usually  still  less  so. 

Enough  has  been  stated  to  show  the  necessity  of  a 
change  of  crops,  and  the  following  are  found  the  best 
rules  to  observe  in  practice: 

1.  Crops  of  the  same  species,  and  even  of  the  same 
natural  order,  should  not  succeed  each  other. 

2.  Plants  with  perpendicular  roots  should  succeed 
those  with  spreading  and  superficial  roots,  and  vice  versa. 

6 


oZ  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

3.  Crops  which  occupy  the  soil  for  several  years,  like 
asparagus,  rhubarb,  etc.,  should  be  followed  by  those  of 
short  duratiou. 

4.  Two  crops  alike  favorable  to  the  growth  of  weeds 
should  not  occupy  the  soil  in  succession. 

5.  Crops  abstracting  largely  from  the  soil  the  sul- 
phates, phosphates,  and  nitrogenous  principles,  should 
not  follow  each  other  immediately,  but  be  succeeded  by 
those  which  draw  loss  from  the  soil  and  more  from  the 
atmosphere.  These  exhausting  crops  should  follow  and 
be  followed  by  those  which  bear  and  will  profit  by  heavy 
manuring. 

6.  Plants  grown  for  their  roots  or  bulbs  should  not 
follow  those  grown  for  the  same  purpose,  and  still  less 
should  plants  grown  for  their  seeds  follow  each  other 
directly  in  succession. 

The  following  are  found  in  practice  to  be  convenient 
crops  to  succeed  each  other  in  rotation,  beginning  after 
an  application  of  manure — viz.:  Ouions,  lettuce,  cabbage, 
carrots  (manure);  or,  turnips,  celery,  peas,  potatoes, 
(manure). 

The  following  is  also  a  very  good  rotation: 

1.  The  cabbage  tribe  to  be  followed  by — 

2.  Alliaceous  plants,  as  onions,  leeks,  etc.,  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  legumes,  as  beans  or  peas.  Peas  may  be  fol- 
lowed the  same  year  with  celery. 

3.  Tap-rooted  plants,  as  carrots,  beets,  parsnips. 

4.  Surface  roots,  as  onions,  potatoes,  turnips. 

5.  Celery,  endive,  lettuce,  spinach,  etc. 

Celery  is  excellent  to  precede  asparagus,  onions,  cauli- 
flowers, or  turnips;  old  asparagus  beds  may  be  used  for 
carrots,  potatoes,  etc.;  strawberries  and  raspberries  may 
precede  the  cabbage  tribe,  cabbage  the  tap-rooted  plants, 
potatoes  the  cabbage  tribe. 


ROTATION    OF    CROPS.  OO 

In  these  rotations  it  is  not  necessary  to  apply  manure 
to  every  crop.  For  the  bulbous  roots,  as  the  onion,  and  for 
plants  cultivated  for  their  leaves,  as  spinach  and  aspara- 
gus, the  ground  can  scarcely  be  too  rich;  and  the  bulk  of 
the  manures  may  be  applied- to  them  and  the  cabbage  and 
turnip  crops,  while  for  plants  raised  for  seed  it  is  best 
that  the  foliage  should  not  be  stimulated  into  too  great 
luxuriance  by  fresh  manuring. 

In  practice  these  rules  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  fol- 
lowed, but  it  is  often  necessary  to  vary  from  them  or  let 
a  part  of  the  soil  lie,  for  a  time,  idle.  Rotations  in  gar- 
dening become  less  necessary  if  the  ground  is  plowed 
deeply  and  manured  highly.  Vacant  ground  thus  treated 
may  be  filled  at  once  with  any  crop  ready  for  planting. 

To  get  the  highest  possible  results  from  a  garden,  there 
must  be  not  only  a  general  rotation  of  crops  year  by  year, 
but  a  number  of  sub-successions  each  yeai'j  as  fast  as  the 
crops  are  removed.  One-fourth  of  an  acre  thoroughly 
manured  and  kept  perfectly  free  from  weeds,  upon  which 
a  constant  succession  of  crops  is  kept  up,  will  yield  more 
than  an  acre  managed  in  the  common  way.  It  is  not, 
however,  always  necessary  to  wait  until  the  crop  occupy- 
ing the  soil  is  removed  before  another  is  put  in.  Simul- 
taneous cropping — that  is,  making  two  crops  occupy  the 
ground  at  the  same  time,  as  in  field  culture  the  cowpea 
in  corn-fields — can  often  be  resorted  to  in  the  kitchen 
garden.  In  the  fruit  garden,  De  Candolle  says  the  vine 
and  the  peach  can  with  advantage  be  grown  together,  the 
light  shade  of  the  peach  not  injuring  the  vines. 

Directions  to  meet  all  circumstances  cannot  be  given, 
still  the  following  hints  may  be  suggestive  of  the  best 
methods  to  secure  in  the  kitchen  garden  satisfactory 
results: 

For  instance,  in  the  fall  a  portion  of  the  garden  may  be 


84  <.ai;i>K.\IN<;    FOB    THE    south. 

occupied  with  spinach;  this  should  bo  heavily  manured, 
and  may  keep  the  ground  until  time  to  plant  melons  and 
other  vines,  when  just  enough  of  the  ground  may  be 
deeply  dug  to  form  the  melon  hills,  and  the  crop  will  be 
ready  to  remove  before  the  melons  begin  to  run.  The 
melon  crop  may  be  followed  by  one  of  turnips.  All  such 
plants  as  radish,  lettuce,  and  other  small  salads,  need 
take  up  no  room  ;  they  can,  any  of  them,  be  raised  between 
the  potato  beds  or  drills,  or  between  melon  hills,  rows  of 
corn,  etc.,  and  they  will  come  to  perfection  before  the 
potato  or  other  crops  require  the  ground.  Radishes  can 
be  raised  between  the  rows  in  the  beds  of  all  kinds  of 
plants  that  are  slow  in  coming  up,  as  carrots,  parsnips, 
etc.,  and  will  be  ready  to  remove  by  the  time  the  others 
come  up. 

Any  vacant  spot  that  occurs  early  in  summer  should  be 
occupied  with  plantings  of  extra  early  or  sweet  corn, 
potatoes,  beets,  kidney  beans,  for  preserving  for  winter 
use,  and  cucumbers  for  pickling.  Those  coming  later  in 
the  season  may  be  occupied  by  sweet  potatoes  until  July, 
then  corn,  cowpeas,  or  rutabaga  turnips.  Where  the  early 
onions  grow,  both  the  alleys  and  the  center  of  the  bed 
may  be  planted  with  late  cabbages  or  Siberian  kale 
before  much  of  the  crop  is  removed.  Cabbages  will  head 
if  the  winter  sorts  be  planted  as  late  as  the  early  part  of 
August,  and  early  Vorks  put  out  in  September,  if  in  rich, 
moist  ground,  and  well  cultivated.  Sweet  corn  may  be 
planted  until  August.  Still  later,  every  unoccupied  cor- 
ner should  be  covered  with  turnips  and  winter  radishes, 
which  may  cover  nearly  the  whole  garden,  being  sown  in 
drills  between  the  rows  of  plants  not  yet  quite  ready  to 
be  removed.  After  the  frost  has  come,  any  vacant  spaces 
should  be  immediately  sown  with  spinach,  onions,  and 
other  crops  for  early  spring  use,  or  with  barley  or  rye  for 
the  cow.    The  secret  of  successful  cultivation,  says  Down- 


ROTATION    OF    CROPS. 


85 


ing,  is  an  abundant  supply  of  manure.  A  small  extent 
of  ground  well  manured  and  plowed  deeply,  by  these 
sub-successions,  will  produce  an  enormous  amount  of 
vegetables,  while  the  same  surface  only  needs  to  be  hoed, 
manured,  and  kept  free  from  weeds,  as  if  it  produced  but 
one  crop.  To  be  sure,  more  manure  and  more  labor  are 
needed,  but  nothing  like  the  amount  which  would  be  re- 
quired to  produce  the  same  crops  without  these  sub-suc- 
cessions. Many  other  sub-successions  will  occur  to  a 
thoughtful  gardener,  but  to  derive  the  full  benefit  of  them 
the  grounds  should  be  well  prepared  when  the  garden  is 
formed. 

Profits  of  Gardening. — The  results  of  the  above 
mode  of  procedure,  in  the  case  of  the  garden  of  the 
Retreat  for  the  Insane  at  Utica,  Xew  York,  were  pub- 
lished by  Dr.  Brigham.  The  land  was  good  and  yearly 
manured.  The  product  was  as  follows  on  one  and  one- 
fourth  acres  of  land:  1,100  heads  lettuce,  large;  1,400 
heads  cabbage,  large;  700  bunches  radishes;  250  bunches 
asparagus;  300  bunches  rhubarb;  14  bushels  pods  mar- 
rowfat peas;  40  bushels  beans;  sweet  corn  (three  plant- 
ings), 419  dozen;  summer  squash,  715  dozen;  squash  pep- 
pers, 45  dozen;  cucumbers,  756  dozen;  cucumber  pickles, 
7  barrels;  beets,  147  bushels;  carrots,  29  bushels;  pars- 
nips, 26  bushels;  onions,  120  bushels;  turnips,  SO  bushels; 
early  potatoes,  35  bushels;  tomatoes,  40  bushels;  winter 
squash,  7  wagon  loads;  celery,  500  heads — all  worth  $621 
in  the  Utica  market,  but  in  use  supplying  130  persons 
with  all  they  could  consume.  Only  one  man  was  required 
to  do  all  the  necessary  labor. 

The  supply  of  northern  markets  with  early  fruits  and 
vegetables  is  becoming  yearly  more  and  more  profitable 
to  all  points  which  have  direct  steam  communication  with 
their  great  cities.  Charleston,  Savannah,  and  Norfolk 
now    ship    very    largely    asparagus,    peas,    snap    beans, 


86  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

cucumbers,  and  many  other  vegetables,  and  a  variety  of 
fruits  from  which  remunerative  profits  are  returned.  The 
extreme  earliness  of  the  crops  in  the  South  enables  the 
market  gardeners  to  place  their  products  on  the  markets 
of  New  York  and  other  large  northern  cities  some  time 
before  the  gardens  more  northerly  situated  are  ready  to 
ship,  and  hence  the  benefits  of  the  advanced  prices  are 
reaped. 

Forwarding  Early  Crops. — Early  crops  in  the  open 
air  should  be  planted  in  a  sheltered  situation,  on  a  dark- 
colored,  silicious  soil.  It  may  be  brought  to  a  proper  state 
by  the  admixture  of  sand  and  charcoal.  Crops,  on  the 
contrary,  may  be  retarded  by  planting  in  a  border  shel- 
tered from  the  sun,  and  of  a  lighter  color  and  more  alumi- 
nous. There  are  many  plants  which  do  much  better  if 
sown  in  the  fall.  Rhubarb,  parsley,  etc.,  come  up  more 
freely  if  suffered  to  be  in  the  ground  all  winter.  Potatoes, 
too,  may  be  early  planted,  and  if  they  come  up,  should  be 
sheltered  by  a  covering  of  straw  or  litter,  added  from  time 
to  time  to  keep  them  from  frost.  Cabbage,  cauliflower, 
broccoli,  etc.,  sown  in  autumn  and  transplanted,  may  be 
kept  out  all  winter  in  boxes  made  by  nailing  four  pieces 
of  boards  together,  eight  inches  wide.  Cut  the  pieces 
twelve  inches  long  at  the  bottom,  and  ten  at  the  top;  nail 
them  together  at  the  corners.  After  the  frosts  begin  to  be 
severe,  throw  in  a  handful  of  loose  straw,  which  will  pre- 
vent the  sudden  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  plants. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  to  produce  early  crops,  as  they 
are  less  liable  to  be  injured  by  insects  or  weeds,  and  very 
much  increase  the  satisfaction  of  gardening.  Early  plants 
may  be  obtained  by  sowing  them  in  a  box  set  in  a  warm 
window,  or  may  be  raised  in  autumn  and  protected  in 
winter  in  a  cold  frame  or  pit,  or  grown  any  time  during 
winter  in  a  hot-bed  for  those  more  delicate,  or  in  a  cold- 
frame  under  glass  for  the  hardier  kinds.     Such  plants, 


ROTATION   OF   CROPS.  87 

when  set  out  in  the  spring,  need  to  be  gradually  hardened, 
and  then  require  shading  a  few  days  until  established. 
Radishes  sown  under  glass  without  heat  early  in  January 
are  generally  fit  for  use  early  in  March.  But  to  forward 
plants  with  any  success  requires  suitable  structures  for 
the  purpose. 


GAKDKXINt;     I()i;    TJIh    SOUTH. 


OHAPTEE    VI. 

HOT-BEDS,  COLD  FRAMES,   AND   PITS. 

Frames  or  Hot-Beds  are  most  usually  employed  for 
forwarding  plants.  The  frame  for  general  use  has  from 
three  to  five  sashes  (see  figure  5),  and  is  made  for  con- 
venience about  four  and  a  half  or  five  feel  wide,  and  the 
length  depends  on  the  number  of  sashes,  which  are 
usually  about  forty  inches  wide.    Use  the  smallest  glass 


Fig.  5     Hot-Bed  and  Frame. 

you  can  obtain,  certainly  not  over  seven  by  nine;  a 
smaller  size  is  preferable,  as  it  is  not  so  liable  to  be 
broken,  and  can  be  more  readily  repaired.  These  sashes 
arc  made  without  cross-bars,  the  glass  overlapping  like 
the  shingles  of  a  house,  and  resting  on  bars  extending 
lengthwise  of  the  sash.  The  lap  of  each  pane  of  glass 
need  not  be  over  half  an  inch,  and  if  the  glass  is  set  in 
the  sash  when  freshly  painted  with  two  coats  of  paint, 
no  puttying  is  necessary,  if  the  sash  is  well  made.     The 


HOT-BEDS,   COLD   FEAMES   AND   PITS.  89 

frame  should  be  made  of  inch  and  a  half  plank  as  high 
again  in  the  back  as  in  the  front,  to  give  the  sashes  the 
proper  slope  to  the  sun,  and  sufficient  inclination  to  carry 
off  the  wet.  The  front,  of  course,  is  towards  the  south. 
Let  the  back  and  front  be  nailed  to  corner  posts,  so  as 
to  admit  the  ends  to  fit  in  neatly,  which  ends  are  to  be 
made  fast  to  the  posts  by  common  carriage  bolts,  in  order 
that  the  frame  may  be  taken  asunder  to  store  when  not 
in  use.  All  joints  in  the  sides  and  ends  should  be  tongued 
and  grooved  to  prevent  the  admission  of  cold  air  or  the 
loss  of  warm  air  from  the  bed.  Each  end  should  be  made 
an  inch  and  a  half  higher  than  the  back  and  front,  and 
grooved  out  one-half  its  thickness,  to  permit  the  sash  to 
slide  and  leave  the  other  half  to  support  the  outside.  At 
the  corner,  also,  of  each  sash,  let  another  piece  of  scant- 
ling be  placed,  and  on  the  top  of  these,  narrow  strips 
the  length  of  the  sash  are  to  be  nailed,  for  the  sash  to 
slide  upon.  Between  the  sashes  nail  an  inch  strip  a 
little  thicker  than  the  sash  to  the  narrow  plank  on  which 
they  slide,  and  put  on  the  sash;  and  upon  this  strip,  in 
cold  weather,  lay  another  narrow  strip,  projecting  over 
the  sash  a  little,  to  cover  the  joint  and  keep  out  the  cold. 
Provide  for  the  bed  a  full  supply  of  good  horse  manure 
from  the  stable,  mixed  with  moist  litter,  preferring  that 
which  is  fresh,  moist  and  full  of  heat.  If  there  is  not 
sufficient  litter  in  the  mass  the  heat  will  not  be  lasting; 
so  as  a  substitute  add  oak-leaves  or  tan-bark.  There 
should  be  at  least  one-third  litter  in  the  heap.  Shake 
it  up  and  mix  it  well  together,  sprinkling  with  water  if 
dry,  and  throw  it  into  a  compact  heap  to  ferment.  In  two 
or  three  days,  if  warm,  or  if  cold,  in  a  week,  turn  it  over, 
and  if  dry  and  musty  in  any  part,  water  again.  Let  it 
alone  two  or  three  days  longer,  and  then  work  it  over 
thoroughly,  as  before,  and  water  if  necessary.  In  a  dry, 
sheltered  situation  opening  to  the  south,  mark  out  the 


90 


OAIMIKMXG    FOK    THE    SOl'TH. 


dimensions  of  the  bed,  making  it  fully  a  foot  longer  and 
wider  than  the  frame  each  way.  Throw  out  the  earth 
about  ten  or  twelve  inches  deep.  Then  begin  to  form  the 
bed  by  spreading  a  thin  layer  of  the  prepared  manure 
upon  the  ground,  mixing  the  long  and  short  well  together. 
Upon  this  spread  other  layers  mixed  in  the  same  manner, 
beating  each  layer  with  the  back  of  the  fork,  but  not  too 
heavily,  to  keep  it  level,  and  equally  firm  throughout. 
Stakes  should  be  placed  at  the  corners  to  work  to.  The 
edges  should  be  kept  true  and  the  corners  firm,  to  do 
which  the  outside  of  each  layer  must  be  first  laid  down, 
and  to  make  the  manure  keep  in  place  a  proper  admixture 
of  long  litter  is  required.  Continue  until  the  bed  is  three 
feet  above  the  surface,  then  spread  the  fine  manure  that  is 
left  evenly  over  the  top,  and  water  freely.  As  soon  as 
finished  let  the  frame  and  glass  be  put  on  with  care,  and 
keep  them  close  until  the  heat  rises  and  a  steam  appears 
upon  the  glass.  As  soon  as  the  heat  rises,  give  air  at  noon 
each  day,  but  keep  closed  in  the  evening  and  at  night, 
unless  the  heat  is  very  violent,  when  a  little  air  should 
be  given.  In  three  days,  if  the  manure  was  sufficiently 
moist,  the  bed  will  be  ready  for  use.  If  it  has  settled 
unequally,  raise  the  frame  and  level  the  surface.  Place 
in  the  frame  six  inches  of  fine,  dark-colored,  sandy  garden 
soil,  spread  it  evenly,  and  put  on  the  sash.  When  warmed 
through  sow  in  pots  plunged  in  the  mould,  or  in  small 
drills  from  one-eighth  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  deep,  varying 
in  depth  with  the  size  of  the  seeds,  and  cover  by  sifting 
fine  earth  on  the  surface.  Water  gently  by  sprinkling 
with  tepid  water  through  the  fine  rose  of  a  watering 
pot.  When  the  plants  appear  they  should  have  air  every 
day  freely  (unless  absolutely  freezing),  which  will  bring 
them  up  strong,  and  prevent  their  dropping  off  by  excess 
of  confined  moisture.  There  are  very  few  days  which  will 
not  permit  opening  the  bed,  not  by  sliding  down  the 


HOT-BEDS,  COLD  FKAMES  AND  PITS.  91 

sashes,  but  by  raising  them  at  the  back,  holding  them 
open  by  a  triangular  block  to  slip  in  so  that  they  can  be 
opened  from  two  to  five  inches.  Open  the  bed  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  day,  as  above,  but  close  early  that  the  plants 
may  not  become  chilled.  During  warm,  gentle  rains,  the 
sash  should  be  opened,  but  closed  very  carefully  during 
cold  or  heavy  washing  storms.  About  G0°  is  the  proper 
temperature;  it  should  not  rise  above  75°.  Such  a  bed 
as  this  is  invaluable  for  striking  cuttings  of  all  kinds, 
in  which  case  there  should  be  an  inch  of  clear  river  sand 
or  charcoal  spread  over  the  surface.  Annuals  of  all  kinds 
for  the  flower  garden,  tomatoes,  peppers,  cabbage  and 
lettuce  plants,  etc.,  will  be  ready,  if  the  bed  is  made  in 
January,  for  transplanting  quite  as  soon  as  they  can  be 
removed  with  safety.  Make  the  bed  six  or  eight  weeks 
before  the  plants  will  be  required.  The  quantity  of 
manure  required  to  form  a  hot-bed  varies  with  the  season 
and  external  temperature,  a  larger  bulk  being  needed  in 
January  than  at  a  later  season.  Even  a  small  bed  should 
have  the  mass  not  less  than  five  feet  long  by  four  feet 
wide,  to  maintain  the  proper  heat.  If  the  soil  whereon  it 
stands  is  clayey  the  whole  bed  should  be  made  above 
ground,  as  the  water  settling  in  the  trench  would  check 
the  heat  of  the  entire  bed.  If  the  bed  is  made  early  in 
the  season  it  will  require  the  application  of  fresh  mate- 
rials at  the  sides  or  "  linings  "  to  keep  it  at  the  proper 
temperature. 

The  best  substitute  for  stable  manure  in  forming  a  hot- 
bed is  spent  tan,  but  to  keep  it  in  its  position  a  plank  bin 
or  a  brick  pit  is  required.  It  takes  more  time  for  the  heat 
to  rise,  but  it  is  longer  continued,  milder  and  more  man- 
ageable than  stable  manure,  and  is  quite  sufficient  for  a 
seed-bed.  A  little  slightly  fermented  stable  manure  is 
needed  to  be  added  to  the  center  of  the  bed,  as  it  will 
start  fermentation  sooner. 


92  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

In  sowing  the  bed  let  the  more  tender  plants,  as  egg- 
plants, peppers,  etc.,  be  sown  under  the  same  sash,  and 
separated  by  a  thin  plank  partition  under  the  cross-bar 
from  the  rest  of  the  frame.  The  finer  and  more  delicate 
seeds  will  require  the  sash  above  them  to  be  shaded  until 
the  plants  appear,  or  each  pot  may  be  separately  covered 
until  the  seeds  are  up.  At  night,  if  cold,  cover  the  bed 
with  plank  shutters,  old  carpets,  or  mats.  Gradually,  as 
the  plants  grow  strong,  accustom  them  to  the  air  as  the 
season  grows  mild.  This  can  be  done  by  opening  the 
frames  entirely  during  the  day,  and  leaving  them  exposed 
daring  mild  nights,  or  by  transferring  them  to  the  cold- 
frame. 

Cold  Frames  are  made  just  like  those  for  the  hot-bed, 
only  the  box  need  not  be  over  fifteen  inches  high  at  the 
back,  and  are  excellent  for  wintering  nearly  hardy  plants 
of  all  kinds,  and  also  for  forwarding  the  more  hardy 
plants,  as  hardy  annuals,  cabbage,  lettuce,  etc.  Indeed, 
they  are  quite  as  indispensable  as  the  hot-bed,  and  less 
expensive,  as  they  require  no  manure,  but  rest  directly  on 
the  soil.  The}^  are  also  of  great  service  in  hardening  off 
hot-bed  stock,  which  should  be  transferred  to  them  before 
it  is  set  out  in  the  open  ground.  In  very  severe  weather, 
the  heat  may  be  kept  in  by  earthing  up  the  sides  and 
covering  the  sash  with  mats  during  the  night.  Air  should 
always  be  given  when  the  weather  will  admit,  or  the 
plants  will  grow  up  yellow  and  spindling.  In  managing 
frames,  the  secret  of  success  is  to  give  plenty  of  air. 
Plants  raised  in  cold  frames  are  generally  more  hardy 
and  desirable  than  those  from  a  hot-bed,  unless  the  latter 
are  repotted  early,  and  when  re-established,  transferred 
to  the  cold  frame,  to  harden  them.  A  cold  frame  or  pit 
covered  with  tiffany  (a  prepared  thin  cotton  (doth)  is  even 
better  than  one  covered  with  glass,  for  the  purpose  of 
hardening  off  young  stock. 


HOT-BEDS,   COLD  FRAMES  AND  PITS. 


93 


Frames  of  all  kinds  should  be  painted  of  a  light  color, 
every  year,  both  for  the  preservation  of  the  wood  and  for 
the  destruction  of  insects  and  their  eggs,  that  are  con- 
cealed in  their  crevices  and  angles.  A  frame  for  raising- 
seedlings  or  striking  cuttings  need  not  be  over  eighteen 
inches  deep  at  the  back,  to  nine  inches  in  front,  as  it  is 
important  to  keep  the  seedlings  near  the  glass. 

Pits. — Figure  6  shows  a  section  of  a  lean-to  pit,  in 
which  tall  plants  may  be  set  upon  the  bottom,  while  a 
stage  may  be  put  in  to  bring  small  plauts  near  the  glass. 
All  pits  should  be  built  of  brick,  and  those  with  the  walls 
built  hollow  above  the  surface  are  preferable.  In  a  pit 
six  feet  wide  the  back  should  be  about  fifteen  to  eighteen 
inches  higher  than  the  front.  Pits  are  also  useful  in  pro- 
tecting delicate  plants  in  summer,  from  heavy  rains  and 
scorching  suns,  and  for  bringing  up  many  seedlings  in 
the  spring  that  do  not  require  artificial  heat.  In  all  cases 
ample  provision  must  be  made  for  drainage,  as  plants 

will  not  flourish  in 
damp,  confined  air. 
When  a  pit  is  de- 
sired merely  to  pre- 
serve  plants  during 


Fig.  6— Section  of  Pit. 


should  face  rather 
to  the  north,  that  is 
from  north-east  to  north-west,  in  order  that  growth  may 
not  be  excited,  and  the  plants  thus  kept  perfectly  at 
rest  during  the  winter.  If  the  pit  faces  any  other  quar- 
ter the  air  within  gets  heated,  and  the  plants  keep  on 
growing  late  in  the  autumn,  are  stimulated  into  tem- 
porary growth  too  early  in  the  spring,  and  are  much  more 
in  danger  of  destruction  by  frost.  The  pit  should  be  kept 
as  dry  as  possible  and  .ventilated  daily  when  the  frost  is 


HOT-BEDS,    COLD   FRAMES   AND   PITS. 


95 


not  too  severe,  and  to  protect  the  roots  of  plants  from 
frost  and  to  prevent  the  necessity  of  frequent  waterings, 
the  pots  should  be  plunged  in  some  dry  material,  as  sand 
or  tan-bark.  Very  little  water  should  be  given  to  plants 
in  their  dormant  state,  for  they  cannot  assimilate  it. 
Many  plants,  as  geraniums,  etc.,  in  such  a  pit  will  require 
but  one  or  two  waterings  during  an  entire  winter.  Plants 
thus  managed  will  endure  a  very  low  temperature,  and 
start  into  more  vigorous  growth  in  spring. 

At  night,  if  cold,  and  during  severe  weather  by  day,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  cover  the  glass  with  mats  or  shutters, 
to  prevent  the  frost  from  penetrating  and  the  heat  from 
being  lost  by  radiation. 

Greenhouse. — In  most  cases,  persons  who  are  finan- 
cially able  to  equip  a  large  garden  are  also  in  position  to 
desire  and  secure  a  greenhouse,  which  is  far  preferable  to 
hot-beds,  pits  or  other  like  devices  for  protecting  tender 
plants.  An  economical  house  can  be  constructed  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  plan  recommended  by  Peter  Henderson 
some  years  since,  and  thus  concisely  described  by  W.  F. 
Massey,  horticulturist  of  the  North  Carolina  Experiment 
Station. 

This  style  of  greenhouse  is  made  with  the  same  kind 
of  sash  which  is  used  in  the  construction  of  hot-beds  and 
cold  frames.  The  house  is  made  by  setting  posts  in  line, 
four  feet  apart  to  make  the  side  walls.  These  side  walls 
are  four  feet  high  and  ten  feet  apart,  this  being  the  width 
of  the  house.  The  tops  of  the  posts  should  be  cut  to 
the  slope  of  the  roof,  and  a  plate  nailed  thereon,  on  which 
the  sashes  are  to  rest.  This  plate  should  project  inside 
and  out,  so  as  to  allow  of  a  gutter  being  formed  on  its 
outer  edge,  for  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  tank  inside  to 
catch  the  rain  water  from  the  roof  for  watering  purposes. 
The  ridge  pole  of  the  roof  should  be  cut  so  that  the  ends 
of  the  sashes  which  are  to  form  the  roof  will  rest  on  a 


HOT-BEDS,   COLD  FRAMES  AXD  PITS. 


!>7 


shoulder  and  come  flush  with  the  top.  Each  alternate 
pair  of  sash  is  screwed  fast  to  the  ridge  pole  at  the  top 
and  to  the  plate  at  the  bottom,  thus  forming  rafters  and 
giving  strength  to  the  structure.  The  other  pairs  are  to 
be  hinged  to  the  plate  at  the  wall  and  held  in  place  at  the 
top  by  a  hook,  or  by  an  iron  strap  punched  with  holes  to 
catch  on  a  pin  fixed  to  the  ridge  pole,  so  that  they  can 
be  propped  up  to  admit  air  to  the  house.    If  the  house  is 


Fig. 


Section  of  Greenhouse. 


to  be  heated  by  an  ordinary  brick  flue  it  should  not  be 
more  than  forty  or  fifty  feet  long.  A  door  wide  enough 
to  admit  a  wheelbarrow  should  be  in  each  end,  and  walk 
through  the  center.  Benches  are  to  be  made  on  each 
side  for  holding  soil  or  for  placing  flower-pots  or  boxes. 
These  benches  and  the  whole  house  can  be  constructed 
of  rough  lumber,  with  the  cracks  battened.  The  green- 
house should  run  north  and  south,  and  at  the  north  end  a 
shed  should  be  made  for  a  work  room,  and  into  which  the 
furnace  door  is  to  open,  so  as  to  keep  the  smoke  and  dust 
from  the  house.  The  furnace  is  placed  in  a  pit  four  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  house,  and  is  made  of  brick,  with 
7 


98  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

an  ordinary  cast-iron  door  and  ash  pit.  An  arch  is  turned 
over  the  fire-box,  and  the  flue  is  built  from  the  rear  cud 
on  a  sharp  ascent  to  the  level  of  the  floor  of  the  house. 
It  should  then  be  built  along  under  the  side  benches,  on 
a  slight  ascent,  the  whole  length  of  the  house,  across  the 
farther  eud  and  back  to  the  chimney  over  the  furnace. 
flic  first  ten  or  fifteen  feet  should  always  be  made  of 
brick,  the  remainder  of  six-inch  terra  cotta  pipe.  The 
furnace  may  be  made  to  burn  wood,  and  in  that  case  no 
grate  bars  will  be  needed,  so  the  fire  can  be  regulated 
by  a  draft  hole  in  the  door.  But  a  coal-burniug  furnace 
is  far  more  convenient,  and  the  fire  will  last  longer.  For 
seed-sowing  purposes  it  is  better  to  have  the  flue  boxed 
in  under  the  benches,  but  in  this  case  hinged  doors  should 
be  made  along  the  walk,  so  as  to  let  more  heat  out  in  the 
house  when  needed. 

A  greenhouse  of  this  character  can  be  built  10x50  feet 
for  about  f  150.  For  heating  more  thoroughly  and  satis- 
factorily than  can  be  accomplished  with  the  brick  furnace 
above  described  it  is  best  to  use  a  boiler  and  circulate 
hot  water  or  steam  in  iron  pipes.  This  method  of  heating- 
will  slightly  increase  the  cost  estimated  above. 


PACKING  AND  MARKETING  THE  CROP.  99 


CHAPTER   VII. 

PACKING   AND   MARKETING  THE   CROP. 

Trucking  in  the  South  is  an  industry  of  comparatively 
recent  years,  and  has  not  become  near  so  extensive  as 
it  is  conducted  in  most  of  the  Northern  States.  However, 
the  demand  for  early  vegetables  and  fruits  has  grown 
year  by  year  to  such  an  extent  that  southern  growers, 
particularly  those  living  near  the  main  thoroughfares, 
are  endeavoring  to  place  the  products  of  their  gardens  in 
the  large  cities  of  the  North  as  early  as  possible,  so  as 
to  reap  the  benefits  of  the  advanced  prices  before  the 
less  favored  gardeners  of  the  colder  climates  are  prepared 
to  harvest  and  market  their  crops.  Along  the  Atlantic 
sea-border,  and  in  some  portions  of  the  Gulf  regions, 
market  gardens  are  to  be  found  which  have  been  more 
or  less  profitable  to  the  owners  for  many  years.  These 
are  to  be  found  along  the  Mississippi  bottoms  near  the 
city  of  New  Orleans;  near  Savannah,  Georgia;  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina;  and  Norfolk,  Virginia.  Whenever 
the  railroads  penetrating  the  South  wake  up  to  the  fact 
that  this  industry  adds  a  new  source  of  revenue  to  the 
bank  account  of  the  companies,  and  reduce  freight  rates 
on  vegetables  and  fruits,  providing,  also,  quick  and  safe 
transportation  to  New  York  or  elsewhere  for  the  perish- 
able products  of  the  gardens,  a  much  larger  number  of 
men  will  engage  in  the  enterprise. 

There  are  so  many  vegetables  and  fruits  which  can 
be  grown  to  perfection  only  in  southern  climates,  and 
which  will  always  command  a  fair  price  if  they  could  be 
promptly  placed  in  the  markets  of  New  York  or  Chicago 
without  incurring  the  ruinous  freight  rates  demanded  by 


100  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

our  railroads,  that  it  would  pay  the  market  gardeners  in 
the  South  to  grow  these  alone;  but  the  mild  climate  and 
the  almost  continuous  growth  of  vegetation  in  the  south- 
ern latitudes  enable  the  gardener  to  raise  most  of  the 
vegetables  known,  and  of  a  superior  quality,  earlier  and 
with  less  expense  than  the  truck  farmers  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  New  York.  It  is  gratifying  to  note,  however, 
that  in  a  few  sections  of  the  South  some  of  the  railroads 
are  making  an  effort  to  encourage  trucking,  and  for  that 
reason,  in  those  sections,  the  industry  is  rapidly  growing. 
Growing  vegetables  and  fruits  for  the  market  is  not  an 
easy  enterprise,  and  it  requires  more  skill,  knowledge  and 
experience  than  the  cultivation  of  the  products  of  the 
garden  for  home  consumption.  The  market  must  be 
closely  studied,  so  as  to  know  when  to  ship  and  what  to 
ship  in  order  to  reap  the  best  prices;  and  the  gardener 
will  frequently  consult  with  honest  and  experienced  com- 
mission merchants  in  regard  to  these  important  particu- 
lars. A  visit  to  the  city  now  and  then  will  Avell  repay  the 
outlay  and  time  spent  in  the  knowledge  gained  in  refer- 
ence to  the  methods  of  disposing  of  vegetables  and  fruits 
and  the  advantage  accruing  to  the  shipper  in  carefully 
packing  and  sorting  his  produce.  The  assorting,  pack- 
ing and  shipping  requires  a  degree  of  skill  and  experience 
only  to  be  obtained  after  some  years  of  actual  engage- 
ment in  packing  and  marketing  the  crops  of  the  garden. 
To  those  who  desire  to  try  their  fortunes  in  the  profession 
of  market  gardening,  the  following  outline  of  the  re- 
quisites for  a  successful  prosecution  of  the  work  will  be  of 
service : 

After  the  land  has  been  properly  prepared  to  produce 
the  best  quality  of  vegetables  and  fruits,  and  a  market 
has  been  selected  in  which  to  dispose  of  the  crop,  the 
most  important  equipment  is  the  packing-house  with  its 


PACKING  AND  MARKETING  THE  CROP.  101 

facilities  for  properly  handling  and  securely  packing  the 
material  with  the  least  labor,  expense  and  chance  of  in- 
jury to  the  crop. 

This  packing-house  should  be  located  in  the  most  con- 
venient position  for  handling  the  vegetables  and  fruits, 
so  that  the  distance  for  hauling  from  the  field  will  be 
reduced,  and  at  the  same  time  easy  access  will  be  ob- 
tained to  the  thoroughfare  leading  to  the  depot.  This 
matter,  of  course,  can  only  be  determined  by  the  circum- 
stances and  facilities  surrounding  the  location  of  the 
garden  and  its  approaches.  The  building  should  be  airy, 
with  ample  room  for  all  purposes  for  which  it  is  con- 
structed. There  must  be  an  entrance  for  the  crop  from 
the  fields  and  another  for  transporting  the  filled  crates 
and  packages  to  the  depot  for  shipment.  The  drivewTay 
in  both  instances  should  be  so  built  that  there  will  be 
as  little  lifting  as  possible,  in  order  to  reduce  to  a  mini- 
mum the  expenditure  of  labor  and  the  chance  of  injury  to 
the  tender  products  of  the  farm. 

There  should  be  at  least  three  compartments  in  the 
building;  one  in  which  to  store  the  fruit  and  vegetables, 
where  the  temperature  can  be  kept  to  a  uniform  degree. 
This  may  be  called  a  cooling  room,  and  is  a  necessity  in 
the  proper  handling  of  vegetables  and  fruits.  Some 
products  of  the  farm  would  certainly  spoil  before  reach- 
ing market  if  packed  before  first  being  stored  in  the  cool- 
ing room.  Another  advantage  of  this  room  is  that  it 
permits  of  shrinkage  in  some  varieties  of  fruits  before 
packing,  thus  reducing  the  trouble  of  loose  packages 
on  reaching  the  destination,  particularly  if  shipped  to  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  farm.  Another  room 
should  be  provided  for  storing  the  crates,  baskets  and 
other  materials  used  in  making  the  packages.  This  room 
should  be  darkened,  but  at  the  same  time  well  ventilated 
and  dry,  so  that  the  wood  will  not  stain  and  thus  lose  its 


102  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

attractive,  clean,  fresh  looks.  The  remaining'  room  should 
be  large  and  provided  with  ample  light  and  facilities  for 
rapidly  assorting  and  packing.  Benches  or  long  tables 
to  hold  the  fruit  and  vegetables,  to  permit  of  the  greatest 
convenience  to  the  packers,  should  be  arranged  around 
this  room,  and  in  easy  reach  above  them  should  be  shelves 
containing  the  empty  crates  and  baskets  to  be  used  in 
the  day's  operation.  As  rapidly  as  the  baskets  and  crates 
are  packed  they  should  be  transferred  to  a  central  table, 
where  the  tops  are  wired  or  nailed  on,  and  they  are  con- 
veniently piled  for  loading  on  the  wagons  for  transporta- 
tion to  the  depot. 

One  of  the  indispensable  requirements  of  the  packing- 
house is  cleanliness  in  all  departments.  This  is  necessary 
not  only  to  insure  clean  condition  of  the  fruit  in  the 
crates  and  baskets,  but  also  to  prevent  the  presence  of 
disease,  which  will  surely  cause  much  of  the  shipment  to 
decay  before  it  reaches  the  market.  No  vegetable  or  fruit 
that  is  at  all  faulty  should  be  allowed  to  enter  the  pack- 
ing-house, if  honest  and  first-class  work  is  desired. 

The  Crates,  Boxes  and  Baskets. — These  are  now 
supplied  by  the  trade,  so  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  make 
them  in  the  packing-houses,  as  was  the  case  in  former 
years.  It  is  still  the  practice,  however,  with  some 
truckers  to  make  their  own  crates,  and,  even  when  they 
are  purchased  they  come  to  the  house  "  knocked  down," 
requiring  simply  a  hammer  and  nails  to  put  them 
together. 

A  variety  of  wood  has  been  tried  in  making  the  crates, 
but  experience  has  proven  that  the  sap  wood  from  the 
Georgia  pine  furnishes  the  best  material,  because  there 
is  strength,  elasticity,  and  absence  of  odors  so  frequently 
found  in  other  woods. 

The  grape  basket,  illustrated  in  Figure  8,  is  the  usual 
form  adopted  by  market  gardeners  for  displaying  this 


PACKING  AND    MARKETING  THE  CROP. 


103 


fruit.    There  are  two  sizes  made,  one  holding  five  pounds 
and  the  other  ten.    The  name  of  the  variety  of  the  grape 


as  well  as  the  name  of  the    grower 


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f 

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'ill 

Fig. 


-Fruit  Basket. 


should  be  plainly 
stamped  on  the  bas- 
ket after  it  is  pack- 
ed. If  a  quantity 
of  small  fruit  like 
strawberries  is  to 
be  shipped  to  a  dis- 
tance the  straw- 
berry boxes  are 
packed  in  a  large 
market  basket 
shown  in  Figure  9. 


There  are  also  two  sizes  of  this  larger  case,  one  contain- 
ing eight  three-pound  boxes,  and  the  other  eight  five- 
pound  boxes.  These  are  light,  made  of  open  work,  so 
that  ample  air  reaches  the  fruit.  This  method  of  packing 
is  greatly  appreciated  by  the  retail  dealers. 

For  the  shipment  of  other  kinds  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables the  crates  illustrated  in  Figures  10  and  11  are  in 
common  use,  particularly  in  the  South.  Figure  10  is  a 
bushel  crate,  which  holds  a  little  more  than  a  bushel. 
The  barrel  crate  is 
Figure  11,  which  has 
a  dimension  of 
Il"x20"x36". 

Other  styles  of 
baskets  and  crates 
are  used  in  different 
sections  of  the  coun- 
try, but  the  ones 
illustrated  may  be  called  the  standard  kinds  for  southern 
truckers,  at  least.     In  shipping    potatoes    the    ordinary 


Large  Market  Basket. 


104 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


flour-barrel  is  sometimes  used  with  holes  cut  in  the  sides 
or  ends  to  permit  of  ventilation. 

The  following 
points  in  reference 
to  crates  and  pack- 
ing were  extracted 
from  the  American 
Garden,  and,  al- 
though they  were 
written  for  special 
localities,  they 
nevertheless  are 
applicable  to  all 
sections  of  the 
coun  ry.  p.^  10_Busnel  Crate 

1.  The  difference  in  the  construction  of  the  32-quart 
strawberry  crates  lies  wholly  in  the  strength  and  varia- 
tion in  the  price;  the  cheaper  grade,  however,  will  not 

stand  the  h  a  r  d 
usage  it  is  sub- 
jected to  in  ship- 
ment. All  fruits 
sold  by  the  north- 
ern truckers  are 
packed  in  these 
32-quart  crates, 
such  as  blackber- 
ries, cranberries, 
and  the  like. 

2.  The  45  or  G0- 
pint  raspberry 
crates     are     more 

Fig.  11— Barrel  Crate. 

applicable  to  all 
purposes  than  the  strawberry  crates.  They  will  hold 
from  eight  to  twelve  10-pound  baskets  of  grapes,  which 


PACKING  AND  MARKETING  THE  CROP. 


105 


are  safely  and  easily  handled  in  this  manner.  In  general 
shape  and  construction  they  are  very  much  like  the  crate 
illustrated  in  Figure  9. 

3.  Fancy  peaches  are  put  up  in  pony  baskets  and 
crated.  This  will  enable  the  dealer  to  display  the  fruit 
without  disturbing  it  from  the  condition  in  which  it  was 
placed  in  the  packing-house.  Pears  are  also  put  up  in 
the  same  manner.  The  expense,  of  course,  is  greater  than 
that  incurred  in  packing  these  fruits  in  barrel  or  bushel 
crates,  but  the  attractive  looks  given  to  the  fruit  will,  in 
most  instances,  warrant  an  increase  in  price,  which  will 
compensate  for  the  extra  trouble  and  expense. 

4.  Currants  are  generally  shipped  in  quart  strawberry 
baskets.  Cherries  are  sent  to  market  in  10-pound  grape 
baskets;  while  choice  plums  find  their  way  into  the 
markets  in  both  the  quart  and  5-pound  grape  baskets. 
The  inferior  grades  of  plums  are  sent  out  in  kegs  and  half- 
barrels. 

5.  Vegetables  are  shipped  in  all  kinds  of  shapes.  Pota- 
toes, peas,  etc.,  are  packed  in  boxes,  barrels,  baskets  and 
bags.  Onions  are  generally  sent  in  crates,  while  beets, 
carrots,  turnips  and  other  root  crops  reach  the  market  in 
boxes  and  barrels. 

6.  It  is  a  misfortune,  however,  that  the  law  does  not 
regulate  in  all  States  the  standard  sizes  and  styles  of 
packages  in  which  fruits  and  vegetables  are  sent  to  the 
market,  so  that  the  buyer  would  know  just  how  much  he 
is  buying,  but  it  is  now  in  most  sections  of  the  country 
mostly  guess  work. 

7.  The  quality  and  the  condition  of  the  fruit  or  vege- 
tables when  they  reach  the  market  are  of  prime  impor- 
tance. Poor  grades  and  bad  condition  will  surely  lose 
*  customers,  while    first-class    crops,  neatly  and    honestly 

packed,  will  gradually  grow  in  favor  and  demand.  Ex- 
cept in  those    instances  where    the    customer    becomes 


106 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


familiar  with  certain  varieties  and  prefers  them,  the 
looks  of  the  crops  displayed  for  sale  have  much  to  do 
with  its  prompt  disposal.  For  this  reason  the  fruit  and 
vegetables  should  be  carefully  graded  before  packing, 
and  the  marks  placed  on  the  crates,  clearly  indicating 
which  are  first  class  and  which  are  second.  This  method 
honestly  carried  out,  will  establish  confidence  in  the 
shipper,  and  the  products  of  his  farm  will  be  in  demand. 
Inferior  grades  should  never  be  placed  in  the  same  crate 
with  first-class  products.  Everything  is  to  be  lost  by  such 
method  and  nothing  to  be  gained. 


The    method    adopted    by  many  market  gardeners  in 
gathering  the  crop  and  checking  the  work  of  hired  labor 


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Fig.  12— Picker's  Tag. 

is  as  follows:  Each  picker  is  provided  with  trays  holding 
such  a  number  of  quarts,  and  when  one  of  these  trays  is 
filled  to  the  standard  measure  it  is  placed  in  charge  of  a 
foreman,  who  gives  the  picker  a  ticket  or  check  (Figure 
12)  bearing  his  or  her  name  and  punched  to  designate 
the  number  of  quarts  picked,  as  well  as  the  condition  of 
the  fruit.  The  trays,  as  they  accumulate  in  sufficient 
numbers  at  any  one  place  in  the  orchard  or  garden,  are 
loaded  on  suitable  trucks  or  wagons  and  carried  to  the 
packing-house. 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC.  107 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

INSECTS,   FUNGI,   PLANT   DISEASES — SPRAYING  APPARATUS 
AND   METHODS. 

No  plant,  no  part  of  a  plant  is  exempt  from  the  attacks 
of  insects.  One  devours  its  tender  leaf  as  it  issues  from 
the  ground;  another  preys  upon  the  root,  and  the  plant 
perishes;  another  burrows  into  the  stem,  boring  it  in 
every  direction  until  the  stem  is  broken  off  by  the  wind. 
The  caterpillar  preys  upon  the  leaves  when  the  plant  gets 
more  mature,  while  the  black  grub  cuts  off  the  young 
plant  just  as  it  is  shooting  into  growth.  Some  feed  upon 
the  flowers,  while  others  devour  the  matured  fruit  or 
seed. 

Insects  are  on  the  increase  in  American  gardens,  partly 
from  the  fact  that  the  destruction  of  forest  trees  and  wild 
plants  has  driven  them  to  the  cultivated  ones  for  food 
(the  apple-tree  borer,  for  instance,  originally  subsisting 
on  the  thorn),  partly  from  being  constantly  imported  from 
all  other  countries  from  which  seeds  and  plants  are 
brought,  and  partly  from  the  diminution  of  birds  and 
other  enemies  by  which  they  are  naturally  held  in  check. 

Insects  are  a  most  extensive  class  of  animals.  They 
are  destitute  of  an  internal  skeleton,  but  possess  a  sort  of 
external  one,  serving  both  for  skin  and  bones,  and  divided 
into  numerous  segments  connected  together  by  slender 
points  of  attachment.  They  all  have  six  or  more  articu 
lated  legs,  and  are  generally  oviparous,  or  produced  from 
eggs.  They  possess  sight,  hearing,  smell,  and  touch  at 
least — senses  in  common  with  those  of  the  superior  ani- 
mals. They  do  not  breathe  through  the  mouth  or  nostrils, 
but  through  vessels  for  the  reception  of  air,  called  spirac- 
ula,  placed  along  each  side  of  the  body. 


108  GARDENING   FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Nearly  all  insects  have  four  stages  of  existence.  First, 
eggs  which  hatch  into  larvae;  these  change  into  pupae, 
where  they  remain  dormant  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period, 
and  from  which  they  emerge  at  last  as  perfect  insects. 
Some  insects,  however,  bring  forth  their  young  alive,  as 
well  as  deposit  eggs.  In  others,  as  the  Orthoptera,  or 
grasshopper  family,  the  young  has  nearly  the  form  of  a 
perfect  insect.  Some  insects  are  injurious  only  in  one 
stage  of  their  existence;  others  at  all  times,  when  not  in 
a  dormant  state. 

A  knowledge  of  the  habits  and  transformations  of 
insects  is  necessary  to  detect  how  and  at  what  period  of 
their  existence  they  can  best  be  destroyed,  or  in  what 
manner  vegetation  can  best  be  shielded  from  their 
attacks. 

By  many  insects  plants  are  at  once  destroyed;  by  others 
wounds  are  inflicted  that  end  in  a  diseased  condition  of 
the  parts  affected,  wThich  is  communicated  to  the  whole 
plant.  Plants  in  a  weak  or  diseased  state  are  far  more 
liable  to  be  attacked  by  insects  than  those  which  are 
healthy  and  vigorous. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  INSECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

1.  Insects  which  attack  the  leaves. 

2.  Insects  which  suck  the  juices  from  plants. 

3.  Insects  which  bore  into  the  stem  and  feed  upon  the 
wood  of  the  plant. 

4.  Insects  which  attack  the  roots. 

5.  Fungi  living  on  the  outside  surfaces  of  plants. 
(>.  Fungi  which  penetrate  the  tissues. 

In  the  treatment  of  these  pests  a  knowledge  of  the 
habits  of  the  insect  or  fungus  is  necessary.  The  remedy 
that  will  destroy  one  group  may  not  check  another;  so 
that  certain  general  rules  must  be  followed  when  efforts 
are  made  to  combat  the  enemies.    First  determine  what 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT   DISEASES,    ETC.  109 

is  the  character  of  the  trouble,  and  then  use  the  remedy 
which  experienced  entomologists  recommend. 

1.  Insects  which  Attack  the  Leaves. — These  are  compara- 
tively easy  to  destroy  by  spraying  poisons  on  the  foliage, 
so  that  the  insects  will  take  the  poison  in  their  food;  or 
the  plant  may  be  enveloped  with  poisonous  gas  which 
will  cause  death  to  the  enemy. 

2.  Insects  which  Suck  the  Juices  from  the  Plants. — This 
group  contains  the  plant  lice,  which  puncture  the  tender 
bark  and  suck  out  the  vital  juices  of  the  plant.  They 
belong  to  the  order  of  insects  known  as  Hemiptera,  or 
true  bugs.  Their  bodies  are  pear  shaped,  and  from  the 
upper  part  of  the  rear  end  are  two  projections  from  which 
a  clear,  sweetish  fluid  exudes.  Ants  and  bees  are  ex- 
ceedingly fond  of  this  exudation,  and  on  those  plants  that 
lice  infest  it  is  quite  common  to  see  ants  climbing  in  con- 
siderable numbers  feeding  on  the  honey  thus  manufac- 
tured by  these  lice.  One  remarkable  fact  in  the  life 
history  of  these  animals  is  the  reproduction  of  the  young 
without  the  intervention  of  the  male,  and  also  the  fact 
that  the  mother,  while  she  is  feeding,  produces  the 
living  young  without  first  laying  eggs.  This  process  of 
multiplication  goes  on  until  late  in  the  fall,  wThen  males 
are  produced,  which  fertilize  the  females,  and  eggs  are 
laid  in  secure  places  against  the  winter,  and  next  spring 
these  hatch  out  into  female  lice,  and  the  process  of  repro- 
duction is  continued  without  the  laying  of  eggs.  It  can 
be  readily  understood,  therefore,  how  rapidly  the  multi- 
plication of  these  animals  will  take  place,  and  the  plant 
must  soon  succumb,  unless  measures  are  used  to  kill  the 
lice  at  once.  During  the  winter  months  all  rubbish  must 
be  burned  in  order  to  destroy  the  eggs  laid  by  the  lice  the 
preceding  season.  When  the  plants  are  growing  they  must 
be  constantly  examined  and  all  lice  killed.  One  female 
deprived  of  her  life  early  in  the  season  is  equivalent  to 


110  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

the  destruction  of  a  great  many  several  weeks  later,  be- 
cause of  the  rapid  multiplication  of  the  animals,  as 
already  stated.  The  use  of  poisons  like  Paris  green  will 
produce  but  little,  if  any,  effect  upon  these  insects,  since 
they  get  their  food  by  inserting  their  sucking  organs  into 
the  tissues  of  the  plants  out  of  reach  of  the  poison,  which 
is  only  on  the  surface.  Spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion 
and  enveloping  the  plant  with  gas  will  accomplish  much, 
howrever,  in  the  destruction  of  the  lice.  For  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  emulsion  see  table  opposite  page  184. 

3.  Insects  which  Bore  into  the  Stem  and  Feed  upon  the  ^Yoocl 
of  the  Plant. — These  insects  must  be  circumvented  by 
placing  on  the  body  of  the  plant  preparations  which  will 
prohibit  the  deposit  of  eggs;  or  by  washing  the  trunk 
with  poisons  which  will  destroy  the  young  grubs  as  they 
cut  into  the  bark.  A  good  preparation  is  a  glue  contain- 
ing Paris  green.  After  the  insect  has  entered  the  tree  a 
wire  must  be  used  to  destroy  it,  or  the  place  attacked 
may  be  cut  and  the  grub  destroyed;  but,  of  course,  the 
tree  is  considerably  injured  by  such  treatment,  particu- 
larly if  the  insect  has  penetrated  to  considerable  depths. 

4.  Insects  which  Attack  the  Roots. — The  treatment  of 
plants  which  are  subjected  to  the  attacks  of  these  animals 
is  almost  hopeless  because  of  the  nature  of  the  soil  and 
the  danger  of  destroying  the  delicate  roots  by  the  use  of 
strong  chemicals.  The  best  method  now  known  is  crop 
rotation,  or  the  starving  of  the  animals  by  the  cultivation 
of  those  plants  known  to  be  exempt  from  their  attacks. 

5.  Fungi  Living  on  the  Outside  Surfaces  of  Plants. — These 
comprise  the  mildews  and  moulds  generally  noticed  on 
the  young,  tender  shoots  and  leaves  of  many  plants  when 
they  are  in  the  condition  for  the  favorable  growth  of 
these  diseases.    The  remedy  is  in  the  use  of  sulphur  vapor. 

6.  Fungi  which  Penetrate  the  Tissues. — These  are  the 
rusts,  smuts,  spot-fungi,  etc.,  found  growing  on  the  tender 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC. 


Ill 


portions  of  many  of  our  cultivated  and  wild  plants.  After 
they  penetrate  the  tissues  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  de- 
stroy them  without  also  killing  the  plant.  The  treatment 
must  be  applied  when  the  fungus  is  young,  and  the 
parts  of  the  plant  susceptible  to  the  attack  must  be 
covered  with  the  chemical  which  will  prevent  the  growth 
of  the  fungus.  When  plants  become  thoroughly  infested 
with  this  disease  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  remove  them 
and  burn  them.  In  the  case  of  trees  vigorous  pruning 
sometimes  prevents  the  spread  of  the  trouble,  and  may 
eventually  eliminate  the  disease  entirely.  The  reader  is 
referred  to  table  opposite  page  181  for  the  methods 
recommended  for  the  treatment  of  fungous  diseases. 

Preventive  measures  are  of  more  value  than  remedial, 
in  protecting  plants  from  insects.  Among  those  most 
likely  to  be  of  value,  are  the  following: 

Rotation  of  Crops. — Each  species  of  insect  generally 
feeds  on  the  same  species  of  plant,  or  at  least  on  plants  of 
the  same  natural  family;  hence  a  constant  change  of  crop 
prevents  the  forthcoming  brood  from  finding  their  proper 
food,  and  many  of  them  perish.  This  is,  however,  more 
applicable  in  the  case  of  field  crops  than  in  orchards  and 
gardens. 

Decaying  Trees. — Destroy  all  decaying  trees  in  the 
neighborhood  of  orchards  and  gardens,  as  they  are  often 
a  refuge,  and  tend  to  propagate  insects  destructive  to  the 
neighboring  crops. 

Scraping  of  the  rough  bark  of  trees  and  washing  them 
with  tobacco  water,  lime  water,  or  a  wash  of  lime,  sulphur 
and  clay,  or  a  solution  of  potash,  destroys  the  hiding 
places  of  insects,  and  manj*  of  the  insects  themselves 
which  infest  trees. 

Birds  and  Other  Animals. — The  encouragement  of 
insectivorous  birds  and  other  animals,  instead  of  their 
thoughtless  and  injurious  destruction,  is  one  of  the  most 


112 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


U^-2Sr 


M 


Fig.  13— Ear  of  pop-corn 
showing  work  of  An- 
goumois  grain  moth. 
Kiley,  Report  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agri. 


promising  methods  of  lessening  the 
insect  tribes.  A  single  pair  of  breed- 
ing swallows,  Bradley  has  calculated, 
destroy  over  three  thousand  worms 
in  a  week.  Toads  live  almost  entirely 
upon  insects,  and  do  not  injure  plants. 
A  large  class  of  insects  also  live  en- 
tirely upon  insects  that  are  injurious 
to  plants,  and  should  be  encouraged. 

Lime  and  Salt. — Dressing  the  soil 
with  lime,  sowing  in  autumn  six  or 
eight  bushels  of  salt  to  the  acre,  turn- 
ing over  the  soil  and  exposing  it  to 
frost  just  before  winter,  or  during  the 
winter  months  when  the  ground  is 
open,  are  all  found  to  be  beneficial. 
Rolling  the  surface  soil  smooth  when 
crops  are  planted  destroys  the  hiding 
places  of  many  insects,  and  renders 
them  less  destructive. 

Any  insect  peculiarly  injurious 
must  be  watched  as  to  its  habits,  mode 
of  feeding,  and  its  transformations,  in 
order  to  discover  where  it  may  be  most 
successfully  attacked. 

As  healthy  plants  are  less  subject  to 
attack,  keep  the  ground  in  good  order, 
sow  good  seed,  cultivate  thoroughly, 
and  the  crop  will  be  less  endangered. 

Hand-Pickix(J. — In  some  cases,  the 
only  effectual  mode  is  hand-picking. 
If  the  leaf-roller,  the  beetle,  or  the 
grub  is  crushed  under  foot,  by  prevent- 
ing reproduction  a  thousand  enemies 
are  destroyed  at  once. 


INSECTS,     FUNGI,     PLANT     DISEASES,     ETC. 


113 


Mice  may  be  caught  in  traps,  or  poisoned  with  arsenic; 
but  the  latter  is  dangerous  if  fowls  or  children  have  ac- 


Moles  are  often  very  troublesome  in  undermining  beds 
of  cuttings  or  young  plants  in  search  of  worms  and  in- 
sects. They  may  be  caught  in  various  traps  sold  for  the 
purpose,  but  by  putting  tarred  sticks  in  their  burrows 
they  will  be  driven  from  them.  Salting  the  soil  is  fatal 
to  many  insects  that  are  the  food  of  the  mob1. 

Hares  and  Rabbits  are  very  destructive  to  trees  and 
garden  vegetables  in  all  country  places,  and  even  in  towns 
Ave  do  not  es- 
cape; they  can 
be  repelled  by  a 
tight  bo  a  r  d 
fence,  or  a  close 
hedge  of  t  h  e 
Macartney  rose. 
Choice  trees  can 
be  bound  up  in 
straw  d  u  r  i  n  g 
the  winter,  or  in 
an  envelope  of 
chestnut  bark 
slipped  over  the 
stem. 

In  the  following  list  will  be  found  some  of  the  most 
troublesome  insects  and  fungi  prevalent  in  the  South. 
This  list  is  not  complete,  and  the  effort  has  been  made 
simply  to  give  the  most  common  forms  of  pests;  and, 
therefore,  if  the  reader  desires  more  extended  informa- 
tion upon  this  very  important  subject  he  is  referred  to 
works  devoted  to  entomology  and  pathology. 

Angumois  Moth  (Sitotroga  cerealella,  Oliv.). — In  the 
adult  form  of  this  insect  it  is  a  moth  one-half  inch  across 


Fig.  14 — Silotroga  cerealella.  a,  Eggs,  b,  Larva  at 
work,  c,  Larva,  side  view,  d,  Pupa,  e,  Moth. 
/,  Same,  side  view.  Chittenden,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agri.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  45. 


114 


GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH, 


the  expansion  of  the  wings.  Its  body  has  a  shiny  appear- 
ance, and  the  wings  are  fringed  with  delicate  hair-like 
appendages.  This  insect  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  to 
stored  grain  to  be  found  in  the  South.  The  larva  is  about 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  of  a  light  color,  and  is 
covered  with  numerous  short  hairs.  The  pupa  is  some- 
what shorter  than  the  caterpillar  and  of  a  darker  color. 


Fig.  15 — Schizoneura  lanigcra.  a,  Agamic  female,  b,  Lar- 
val louse,  c,  Pupa,  d,  Winged  female,  with  antenna 
enlarged  above.  All  greatly  enlarged  and  with  waxy 
excretion  removed.  Marlatt,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  I>ept. 
Agri.  Cir.  20. 

Either  before  the  grain  is  taken  from  the  field  or  after  it 
is  stored  the  moth  deposits  her  eggs  between  the  rows 
of  grain  on  the  cob.  A  few  days  after  these  hatch,  and 
the  young  caterpillars  penetrate  the  grain  and  feed  on  the 
starchy  material.  Within  four  or  five  weeks  this  larva 
passes  into  the  pupa  state,  and  several  days  after  it  comes 
forth  as  a  moth.  In  the  far  South  there  are  as  many  as 
eight  broods  each  year. 

Remedy. — The  bins  should  be  made  close,  and  when 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC. 


115 


the  presence  of  the  insect  is  detected  the  grain  must  be 
fumigated  with  carbon  bisulphide.  This  is  highly  in- 
flammable, and  fire  must  not  be  brought  near  it  while 
fumigation  is  going  on. 

Woolly  Aphis,  or  Apple-tree  Blight  (Schizonetira 
lanigera),  is  found  upon  the 
apple  tree.  The  female  is  a 
small,  egg-shaped,  dull  red- 
dish-brown insect,  with  a 
black  head,  dusted  with 
white  powder,  and  with  a 
tuft  of  white  down  grow- 
ing from  the  hind  part  of 
the  back,  which  makes  a 
colony  of  these  insects  look 
like  a  small  patch  of  white 
down.  Each  tuft  contains 
a  female  and  her  young, 
which  last  are  of  a  pale 
color.  In  Europe,  trees  are 
often  white  with  these  in- 
sects. Here  they  are  gen- 
erally found  at  the  base  of 
twigs  and  suckers  from  the 
trunk,  or  where  a  wound  in 
the  bark  is  healing.  Scrape 
the  bark  of  the  tree,  if 
rough,  and  wash  the  tree, 
filling  every  crevice  with 
kerosene  or  a  solution  of 
two  pounds  potash  to  seven 
quarts  of  water,  or  Harris'  Composition — two  parts  soft 
soap  and  eight  of  water,  with  lime  enough  to  make  a  thick 
whitewash.  Sulphuric  acid,  mixed  with  ten  times  its  bulk 
of  water,  is  also  recommended. 


Fig.  16 — Schizoneura  lanigera.  a,  Root 
of  young  tree,  illustrating  deforma- 
tion, b,  Section  of  root  with 
aphides  clustered  over  it.  c,  Root 
louse;  female,  a  and  b,  Natural 
size  ;  c,  much  enlarged.  Marlatt. 
Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Cir.  20. 


116 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Apple  Root-Blight.— The  Woolly  Aphis  is  like  the 
Grape  Phylloxera  in  producing  a  root  form  also.  The 
attack  of  this  insect  on  the  roots  of  the  apple  make  wart- 
like excrescences,  in  the  crevices  of  which  are  contained 
minute,  yellow  lice,  often  accompanied  with  larger 
winged  ones  of  a  black  color,  having  their  bodies  covered 
with  white,  cotton-like  matter.  The  wounds  made  upon 
the  root  by  these  insects  produce  an  increased  flow  of  sap 


ah  c  d 

Fig.  17 — Saperda  Candida,  a,  Larva  from  side  ;  b,  from 
above,  c,  Female  beetle,  d,  Pupa.  All  enlarged 
one-third.  Chittenden,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 
Cir.  32. 


to  the  spot  affected,  and  these  morbid  enlargements  are 
the  result.  Nursery  trees  affected  should  have  their  roots 
soaked  in  soapsuds  before  planting.  Trees  affected  in  the 
fruit  garden  may  have  their  roots  partly  bared,  and  a 
liberal  application  of  charcoal  dust,  ashes,  or  soapsuds, 
poured  upon  the  warty  excrescences.  Their  presence 
gives  the  affected  trees  a  yellow,  unhealthy  appearance. 
The  application  of  carbon  bisulphide  to  the  ground 
around  the  roots  is  probably  the  best  remedy  known. 
Tobacco  ground  fine  and  placed  on  the  ground  and  then 
well    wet    with   water   is    excellent.     But  if  the  tree  is 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC. 


117 


seriously  injured  by  the  attack  of  this  insect  it  will  be 
best  to  root  up  the  plant  and  burn  it,  and  use  the  place 
for  some  other  plant  not  susceptible  to  the  attack  of  the 
Aphis. 

Apple-Tree  Borers  (Saperda  Candida;  Chrysobothris 
femorata,  Fab.). — The  first  insect  in  its  adult  form  is  a 
beetle,  pale  brown  with  two  yellow  stripes  down  its  back. 
The  borer,  or  larval  stage, 
is  a  grub  with  a  large 
rounded  head  and  sharp 
jaws.  The  eggs  are  de- 
posited near  the  base  of 
the  tree  and  the  grub  bores 
into  the  bark  as  soon  as 
hatched,  twelve  to  eighteen 
days  after  the  eggs  are 
laid.  The  borer  remains  in 
the  trunk  of  the  tree  about 
three  years,  cutting  a  tor- 
tuous channel,  sometimes 
completely  girdling  the 
tree  and  killing  it.  The  latter  insect  is  also  a  beetle  in  its 
parent  form,  but  is  somewhat  smaller  with  a  greenish- 
black  back  and  copper  color  on  the  under  side.  The  eggs 
are  deposited  one  at  the  time  in  the  crevices  of  the  bark 
on  the  trunk  and  larger  limbs,  and  are  hatched  within 
two  weeks.  The  grub  does  not  remain  in  the  tree  as  long- 
as  the  saperda,  not  more  than  two  years,  and  it  conse- 
quently does  not  bore  as  far  into  the  wood. 

Plants  Injured. — Apple,  pear,  and  quince. 

Remedies. — The  remedy  is  preventive,  because  when 
the  insects  once  reach  the  interior  of  the  trunk  the  tree 
becomes  so  seriously  damaged  it  will  seldom  recover. 
If  the  grub  has  just  entered  and  the  orifice  can  be  dis- 
covered a  wire  run  into  the  hole  will  soon  end  the  work 


Fig.  18 — Chrysobothris  femorata.  a, 
Larva,  b,  Beetle,  c,  Head  of  male. 
d,  Pupa,  twice  natural  size.  Chit- 
tenden, Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agri.  Cir.  32. 


118  GARDENING    FOR   THE    SOUTH. 

of  the  enemy.    The  best  preventive  is  a  soap  and  corrosive 
sublimate  wash  made  as  follows: 

Corrosive  sublimate,  1  ounce. 

Soft  soap,  10  gallons. 

Alcohol,  1  pint. 

Water,  to  make  a  stiff  paint. 

Dissolve  the  sublimate  in  the  alcohol  and  add  the  soap, 
and  then  the  water.  Apply  this  wash  to  the  tree  early  in 
May,  and  renew  within  twenty  days,  or  earlier,  as  long  as 
the  beetles  are  seen  flying  about.  Coat  the  trunk  and  the 
large  limbs. 

Apple-Tree  Tent  Caterpillar  (Clisiocampa  Ameri- 
cana).— The  moth  is  a  reddish  night-flying  insect  which 
lays  her  eggs,  200  or  more,  around  small  twigs  in  early 
summer,  and  then  dies.  These  eggs  remain  unhatched 
until  the  following  spring,  when  the  tree  begins  to  bud, 
when  they  hatch  small  caterpillars,  which  feed  upon  the 
leaves  of  the  tree.  The  caterpillars  spin  a  web  in  the 
forks  of  the  tree,  where  they  remain  at  rest  during  the 
hot  part  of  the  day.  These  web  tents  are  quite  dense  and 
seldom  attain  a  larger  size  than  one  foot. 

Plants-  Injured. — Apple,  cherry,  and  other  trees. 

Remedies. — Fasten  to  a  long  pole  a  wad  of  cotton 
dipped  in  kerosene  oil  and  burn  the  webs  while  the  cater- 
pillars are  resting  therein. 

Blister  Beetle  (Epicaute  vittata,  Fab.). — This  insect  is 
also  called  the  "  potato  bug,"  but  it  must  not  be  confused 
with  the  Colorado  bug.  The  beetle  is  yellow,  with  two 
black  stripes  down  each  wing  cover.  It  is  about  one-half 
inch  long.  The  larvae  feed  on  eggs  of  other  insects,  and 
the  beetle  lives  on  the  leaves  of  plants. 

Plants  Injured. — Irish  potatoes,  beets. 

Remedies. — Hand-picking  and  spraying  with  Paris 
green  or  London  purple. 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT   DISEASES,    ETC. 


119 


Codling  Moth;  Apple  Worm  (Carpocapsa  pomonclla, 
Linn.). — The  adult  is  a  small  brown  moth,  which  flies 
generally  at  night,  and  deposits  her  eggs  singly  on  the 
surface  of  young  fruit  just  after  the  flower  falls.   When 

these  eggs  hatch 
the  young  worm 
cuts  its  way  into 
the  apple,  usu- 
ally at  the  blos- 
som end,  and  re- 
mains here  feed- 
ing until  full 
grown,  w  h  i  c  li 
occurs  within  a 
few  days.  The 
worm  then  finds 
its  way  out,  de- 
scends to  the 
ground  by  a  web 
or  otherwis e, 
and  passes  into 
the  pupa  state 
under  the  pro- 
jections of  the 
bark  at  the  base 
of  the  tree.  In 
two  or  three 
weeks  another 
brood  of  moths 
is  formed,  and 
other  apples  are 
attacked  in  the  same  manner.  The  larvae  mature  about 
the  time  in  autumn  when  the  ripe  apples  are  gathered. 
In  the  illustration  the  two  lower  insects  are  enemies  of 


Fig.    19— Codling   Moth.      Carpocapsa  pomonella. 
Div.  Entomology  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 


120 


GAKDENLNG    FQB    THE    SOUTH. 


the  codling  moth  and  are  named  Pimpla  annulipes  and 
Macrocentrus  del  lent  it*. 

Plants  Injured. — Apple,  pear. 

Remedies. — All  defective  fruits  which  fall  to  the 
ground,  the  loose  bark  and  trash  should  be  cleaned  up 
and  burned.  Spray  with  arsenites  such  as  Paris  green 
and  London  purple.  For  the  formulae  see  the  end  of  this 
chapter. 

Corn-Ear  Worm;  Boll  Worm  (Heliothis  armigera, 
Hbn.). — This  is  the  well-known  cotton-boll  worm,  and  the 

damage  it  com- 
mits in  all  sec- 
tions  of  the 
South  cannot  be 
estimated.  The 
adult  is  a  moth 
varying  in  color 
from  yellowish 
gray  to  a  dark 
yellow,  and  on 
the  outer  wings 
is  a  broad  band, 
dark  on  the  out- 
er margins,  with 
a  white  spot  on 
the  inside.  When 
the  wings  are 
spread  the  insect 
is  from  one  and 
a  half  to  two 
inches  from  tip 
to  tip.  The  worm  is  about  one  inch  long,  and  it  trans- 
forms into  the  pupa  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Plants  Injured. — Cotton  bolls,  corn,  tomatoes,  squashes, 
tobacco,  peas,  beans,  and  potatoes. 


Fig.  20 — Boll  Worm  or  Corn-Ear  Worm. 
armigera.     Div.  Ent.  Dept.  Agri. 


Heliolh 


IXKKCTS,     lT.\(iI,     1>LA.\T    DISKASKS,     KTC 


121 


Remedies. — Hand-picking  and  rotation  in  crops  will 
greatly  reduce  the  number  of  insects.  The  use  of  a  solu- 
tion of  hellebore,  three  ounces  to  sixteen  gallons  of  hot 
water,  applied  without  dilution,  is  also  recommended. 

Cabbage  Worm  (Pieris  rapae,  Linn.). — This  is  a  foreign 
insect  i  n  t  r  o  d  u  c  e  d 
many  years  since 
from  Europe.  It  is 
well  known  in  all  sec- 
tions of  the  United 
States  where  the  cab- 
bage plant  is  culti- 
vated. The  butterfly 
is  light  cream  color, 
about  two  inches 
across  the  expansion 
of  the  wings.  The  worm  is  green  with  a  yellow  stripe  ex- 
tending down  the  back,  with  small  yellow  spots  on  each 
side.  The  greatest  damage  is  committed  by  the  worm. 
It  eats  the  leaves,  destroying  them  completely.  There  are 
two  broods  in  the  South. 

Plants  Injured. — Cabbages. 

Remedies. — Paris  green,  one-fourth  of  a  pound  to  a 
barrel  of  water,  sprayed  on  the  plants. 


Fig.  21 — Pieris  protodia 
alis.  Riley,  Div. 
Agri.  Report,  1889. 


.  a,  Larva,  b,  Chrys- 
Ent.    U.    S.    Dept. 


Fig.  22 — Pieris  protodice.  Male 
butterfly.  Riley,  Div.  Ent. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Report,  1883. 


Fig.  23 — Pieris  protodice.  Female  but- 
terfly. Riley,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agri.  Report,  1883. 


Pieris  protodice  and  P.  monuste  are  two  other  species  of 
the  cabbage  worm  which  are  also  found  in  the  South 


122 


UAKOJEMAG    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 


destructive  to  the  plant.  They  resemble  in  many  respects 
the  first  described,  differing  in  coloring  and  size,  and  the 
same  remedies  are  applicable. 

Cabbage  Louse  (Aphis  brasslcae.  Linn.). — A  green  plant 
louse,  occurring  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves,  and, 


F.  Dctmers.  del. 


Fig.  24 — Aphis  brassicae.  a,  Winged  male,  magnified. 
b,  Head  and  antenna  of  same,  more  magnified,  c, 
Viviparous  female,  magnified,  d,  Head  and  antenna 
of  same,  more  magnified.  Insect  Life,  Vol.  Ill,  Div. 
Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 

when  in  large  numbers,  seriously  injuring  the  plant  by 
sucking  its  juices,  causing  the  leaves  to  wither  and  die. 

Plants  Injured. — Cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  similar 
plants. 

Remedies. — Pyrethrum  powder  mixed  in  water  and 
sprayed  on  the  plants  will  generally  destroy  these  insects. 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,   PLANT   DISEASES,    ETC. 


123 


Kerosene  emulsion  diluted  to  one-half  its  usual  strength 
and  applied  with  the  sprayer  is  also  excellent.  Tobacco 
solution  is  also  recommended,  and  made  as  follows: 
Powdered  tobacco  three  pounds,  boiled  in  ten  gallons  of 
water  for  one  hour,  applied  without  dilution. 

Cabbage  Worm  (Plusia  brassicae,  Riley).— This  is  one 
of  the  common  insects  injurious  to  the  cabbage  and  other 
plants.  It  is  a  green 
worm  about  one  inch 
long,  usually  with 
light  stripes  down 
its  body;  these 
stripes,  however,  are 
sometimes  wanting. 
The  worm  raises  the 
center  of  its  body  in 
moving  over  the 
leaves,  and  for  this 
reason  is  called  a 
"looper."  The  moth 
flies  at  night,  but 
may  be  seen  some- 
times during  cloudy 
weather  flying  over 
the  cabbage  field. 
The  eggs  are  greenish  yellow,  and  are  deposited  on  the 
upper  or  lower  sides  of  the  leaves.  This  insect  eats  the 
leaves,  and  at  times  bores  into  the  head  of  the  cabbage. 
There  are  about  six  broods  during  the  season. 

Plants  Injured. — Cabbage,  celery,  cauliflower,  lettuce, 
turnips,  tomatoes. 

Remedies. — Paris  green  or  London  purple  will  kill  the 
plusia,  but  these  poisons  must  not  be  used  after  the  cab- 


'  "M:^^^^^^"" 


Fig.  25— Plusia  brassicae.  a,  Moth,  b,  Full 
grown  larva,  c,  Pupa  with  its  cocoon,  natu- 
ral size.  Howard,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agri.  Year  Book,  1898. 


124 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


bage  begins  to  head.    The  kerosene  emulsion  is  the  safest 
remedy. 


Soft  soap, 

1  pound. 

Kerosene  oil, 

1  pint. 

Water, 

2  quarts. 

Boil  the  water  and  soap  solution,  remove  from  the  fire 
and  add  the  kerosene.  Churn  the  solution  until  the  ingre- 
dients are  thoroughly  mixed,  and  the  oil  then  will  not 
separate  after  cooling.  Dilute  with  its  bulk  of  water,  and 
spray  with  a  force  pump  so  as  to  strike  the  insects  firmly. 

Cut  Worms  (Peridromia  mucin;  Mamestra  trifolii). — 
There  are  several    genera  of  these    destructive    insects 


Fig.  26— Peridromia  smitia.  a,  Adult,  b,  c,  d,  Full  grown 
larvae.  e,f,  Eggs.  All  natural  size  except  e,  which 
is  greatly  enlarged.  Howard,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agri.  Year  Book,  1898. 

found  distributed  throughout  the  United  States,  and  the 
larvae,  or  worms,  are  recognized  by  the  cylindrical,  naked 
form,- marked  with  longitudinal  stripes,  and,  when  dis- 
turbed, the  worms  curl  up  and  remain  quite  motionless 


ITXCI,    PLANT    nrSKASK 


125 


for  a  short  while.  The  adults  are  moths,  rather  small  and 
of  an  ashy  hue.  The  eggs  are  laid  ou  stems  of  low  plants 
in  late  spring,  and,  when  the  worms  hatch,  they  descend 
into  the  ground.  When  winter  approaches  they  find 
refuge  under  logs  or  other  objects.  The  warmth  of  the 
following  spring  brings 
them  forth,  and  1hey  at 
once  begin  feeding  on 
the  tender  plants  within 
reach.  In  a  few  weeks 
they  transform  iuto  the 
pupa  state  and  then  into 
the  moth. 

I 'hints  Injured. — Near- 
ly all  varieties  of  vege- 
tables. 

Remedies. — Dr.  Riley 
recommends  the  distri- 
bution of  poisoned  leaves 
over  the  surface  of  the 
ground  before  setting 
out  the  plants,  and  re- 
peating this  operation. 
The  leaves  are  to  be 
poisoned  with  Paris 
green  or  London  purple. 

In  the  use  of  these  poisons,  however,  chickens  and  other 
domestic  animals  must  not  be  allowed  to  eat  the  leaves, 
because  death  will  result.  H>nd-picking  while  the 
worms  are  feeding,  or  digging  for  them,  is  effective. 

Cucumber  Beetle  (Diabrotica  vittata,  Fab.). — This  in- 
sect causes  great  trouble  to  the  gardener,  because  it 
makes  its  attacks  when  the  plants  are  quite  young,  by 
eating  holes  in  the  leaves  and  causing  the  entire  plant  to 


Fig.  27 — Mameslra  trifolii.  a,  h,  Larva. 
c,  Pupa,  d,  Moth,  e,  Wing  of  same. 
f,  Anal  segments  of  pupa.  Riley, 
Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Report, 
1883. 


126 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


wither  and  die. 
an  inch  in  length,  yellow  in  color  with  a  black  head  and 
three  stripes  running  down  its  back.  The  grubs  also 
cause  considerable  damage  to  the  roots  of  plants. 
Plants  Injured. — Cucumbers,  melons,  squashes. 
Remedies. — Application  of  dry  Paris  green  to  the 
leaves  of  the  plant.  Kerosene  emulsion  has  also  been 
successfully  used.  The  cucumbers  and  melons,  when 
planted  on  a  small  scale,  may  be  protected  until  large 
enough  to  resist  the  attacks  of  the  insect,  by  covering 

them  with  mosquito 
netting.     Use  of  to- 
bacco   and    dusting 
the  plant  with  pyre- 
thrum     have     also 
been  recommended. 
Colorado  Potato 
Beetle     (Doryphora 
decemlineata,    Say). — 
This    is    a    common 
enemy   to   the   Irish 
potato,  and  is  easily 
Dept.  Agri.  recognized     by     the 
bright  striped  condi- 
tion of  its  body.     It  is  small,  and  oval  in  shape.     It  is  a 
voracious  insect,  and  eats  the  entire  plant. 
Plants  Injured. — Irish  potatoes  and  its  kind. 
Remedies. — Application    of    Paris    green    or    London 
purple,  either  in  the  dry  state  or  sprayed  on  the  plants. 

Canker  Worm  (Amsopteryx  pometaria,  Ilarr,  or  fall 
canker  worm;  Paleacrita  vernata,  Peck,  or  spring  canker 
worm). — The  two  species  of  this  insect  are  strikingly 
alike,  and,  to  the  unpracticed  eye,  they  may  be  readily 


Fig.  28 — Diabrotica  villala.  a,  Beetle,  b,  Larva. 
c,  Pupa.  (/,  Side  view  of  anal  segment. 
Chittenden,  Div.  Ent.  IT.  S. 
Cir.  31. 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC. 


127 


termed  one  and  the  same  insect.  The  worms  are  gen- 
erally called  "  measuring  worms,"  because  of  the  peculiar 
bending  of  the  body  in  moving  from  place  to  place.  The 
eggs  are  deposited  in  late  fall  by  a  wingless  insect  some- 
what resembling  a  spider. 
The  worms  are  green- 
brown  in  color,  and  they 
feed  on  the  leaves  and 
flowers. 

Plants  Injured. — Apple, 
plum,  cherry,  elm. 

Remedie  s. — Spraying 
with  Bordeaux  mixture, 
to  which  Paris  green  has 
been  added.  This  appli- 
cation must  not  be  made 
while    the    blossoms    are 


Fig.  29 — Anisopieryx  pometaria. 
Egg.  c,  d,  Dorsal  and  side  views  of 
larval  segment,  enlarged,  e,  Egg- 
mass.  /,  Larva,  g,  Female  pupa, 
natural  size,  h,  Anal  tubercle,  en- 
larged. Riley,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S. 
Dept.  Cir.  9. 


opening,  because  the  tender  parts  of  the  flower  will  be 
injured  by  the  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Grape  Vine  Fidia  (Fidia  viticida,  Walsh). — A  beetle 
about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  long,  of  a  brown  color  and 
covered  with  dense  light  IHw   \  ^em 


yellow  hairs.  It  attacks 
the  grape  leaves  by  eat- 
ing irregular  holes  in 
them.  When  the  insect  is 
disturbed  it  falls  to  the 
ground  and  feigns  death. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  the 
cracks  of  the  bark  some 
distance  above  the  ground.  The  larvae,  when  hatched, 
fall  to  the  ground  and  bore  into  the  earth  to  feed  on  the 
tender  roots  of  the  vine.  They  remain  below  the  surface 
feeding  on  the  roots  and  in  the  pupa  state  until  the  fol- 


U    6 


Fig.  30 — Anisopteryx  pometaria.  a,  Male 
moth,  b,  Female,  natural  size,  c, 
Joints  of  female  antenna,     d,  Joints 

.  of  female  abdomen,  enlarged.  Riley, 
Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Cir.  9. 


128 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


lowing  .Time,  when  the  beetles  emerge  to  destroy  the 
foliage. 

Remedy. — Spraying  with  arsenical  compounds  (arsenic 
and  lime  used  in  the  strength  of  one  pound  to  150  gallons 
of  water)  will  destroy  the  beetle.  This  spraying  must  be 
done  early,  so  as  to  avoid  the  danger  to  the  fi*uit.     The 


Fig.  31 — Fidia  vitieida.  a,  Beetle,  b,  Eggs  represented  natural  size  under 
fold  of  bark,  and  much  enlarged  at  side,  c,  Young  larva,  d,  Full  grown 
larva,  e,  Pupa.  /,  Injury  to  leaf  by  beetles,  g,  Injury  to  roots  by  larvae. 
&,  In  part,  and/  and  g  natural  size,  rest  much  enlarged.  Marlatt,  Div. 
Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Year  Book,  1895. 


larvae  may  be  destroyed  by  injecting  carbon  bisulphide 
into  the  ground,  or  by  wetting  the  soil  with  a  kerosene 
emulsion  diluted  nine  times.  A  gallon  of  this  solution 
is  poured  in  a  hole  around  the  vine,  and  an  hour  later 
washed  down  to -greater  depths. 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC. 


129 


Grape  Leaf  Folder  (Desmia  maculalis,  Westw.)- — 
"  One  of  the  noticeable  features  of  a  vineyard,  particu- 
larly in  midsummer  and  later,  is  the  many  folded  leaves, 
the  interiors  of  which  have  been  skeletonized.  This  is 
especially  evident  with  thick-leaved  varieties,  the 
whitish  under  surface  contrasting  strongly  will)  the  thick 
green  of  the  upper.  If  the  leaf  be  unfolded,  it  will  be 
found  to  contain  a  very 


active,  w  r  i  g  g  1  i  n  g, 
greenish  larva,  a  little 
less  than  an  inch  long, 
which  is  apt  to  spring- 
out  of  the  fold  and  fall, 
or  hang  by  a  thread. 
The  leaf  itself  will  be 
found  to  be  attached 
to  the  folded  part  by 
means  of  numerous  lit- 
tle cords  of  silk.  If  the 
larva  is  full  grown,  the 
interior  of  the  leaf  will 
be  thoroughly  skele- 
tonized and  soiled 
with  accumulated  ex- 
crements. The  fold  al- 
most invariably  brings  the  upper  sides  of  the  leaf  to- 
gether, the  larva  feeding,  therefore,  on  what  would  be 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf.  The  larva  transforms  to  a 
reddish-brown  chrysalis  usually  within  a  much  smaller 
fold  of  the  edge  of  the  leaf,  but  sometimes  within  the 
larger  larval  fold.  The  moth,  which,  during  the  summer, 
issues  in  a  few  days,  expands  about  an  inch,  and  is  a 
shining  opalescent  black,  with  wings  bordered  with  white 
and  marked  with  white  spots,  as  in  the  illustration,  a 


Fig.  32 — Desmia  maculalis.  a,  Male  moth. 
I>,  Female,  c,  Larva,  d,  Head  and  tho- 
racic segments  of  same,  enlarged. 
e,  Pupa.  /,  Tip  of  pupa,  enlarged. 
g,  Grape  leaf  folded  by  larva.  Mar- 
latt,  Div.  Ent.  TJ.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Year 
Book,  1895. 


130 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


females.  There  are  two  (or  in  the  South,  three)  broods 
each  summer,  the  last  brood  hibernating  in  the  leaves." 
(Marlatt.) 

Remedies. — Crushing  the  insect  in  the  folds  of  the 
leaves  early  in  the  season  is  the  sure  way  to  get  rid  of  the 
trouble.  If  this  method  is  pursued  systematically  each 
day  the  task  is  not  difficult,  because  the  folded  leaves  are 
readily  detected,  and  the  remedy  is  certainly  effectual. 


Fig.  33 — Haltica  chalybea.  a,  Beetle,  b,  Larva,  c,  Larvae  and  beetle  on  foliage. 
d,  Injury  to  buds,  e,  Beetles  killed  by  fungus,  a  and  b,  Much  enlarged, 
rest  natural  size.     Marlatt,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Year  Book,  1895. 

Burn  all  of  the  rubbish  in  the  fall  found  on  the  ground 
around  the  vines,  and  in  this  way  many  larvae  will  be 
destroyed,  which  will  otherwise  pass  through  the  winter 
in  these  protected  places  and  come  forth  at  the  opening 
of  spring  to  renew  the  attack  on  the  plants. 

Grape  Vine  Flea  Beetle  (Haltica  chalybea,  111). — This 
beetle  appears  on  the  grape  vine  very  early  in  the  season 
and  feeds  on  the  young  branch  buds,  thus  greatly  retard- 
ing the  growth  of  the  vine.  Sometimes  when  the  insects 
are  in  great  numbers  the  vine  is  killed  to  the  roots. 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC. 


131 


The  beetle  is  of  a  shining,  bluish-green  color,  one-fifth  of 
an  inch  long  and  active  in  its  movements.  The  eggs  are 
deposited  on  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves  and  hatch 
within  a  few  days  a  number  of  brown  larvae,  which  feed 
on  the  upper  surfaces  of  the  leaves,  cutting  small  round 
holes.  These  larvae  feed  until  the  first  of  June,  when 
they  descend  into  the  earth  and  transform  into  beetles 
about  the  first  of  July.  These  feed  on  the  leaves  until 
fall,  when  they  seek  pro- 
tected places,  where  they 
pass  the  winter. 

Plants  Attacked.— Vir- 
ginia creeper,  alder,  plum 
trees,  grape  vines. 

Remedies. — R  e  m  o  v  e 
and  burn  all  leaves  and 
rubbish  under  the  vines 
in  the  fall.  In  the  spring- 
spray  the  canes  and  the 
young  foliage  with  a  solu- 
tion of  Paris  green  (one 
pound  to  150  gallons  or 
water).  Early  in  the 
spring  the  beetles  are 
rather  sluggish,  and  they 
may  be  shaken  on  to  cloths  which  arc  saturated  with 
kerosene.  They  will  die  as  soon  as  they  come  in  contact 
with  the  kerosene. 

Harlequin  Cabbage  Bug  (Murgantia  histrionica, 
Hahn). — This  insect  is  also  known  in  some  sections  of  the 
South  as  the  "  Lincoln  bug."  The  full-growTn  insect  is 
striped  with  orange  and  black;  it  is  about  one-half  inch 
long,  of  an  oval,  flattened  form.  The  eggs  are  laid  and 
hatched  within  two  or  three  days,  and  the  bugs  at  once 


Fig.  34 — Munjuntia  liixtri'mica.  a, 
Young,  b,  Half  grown,  c,  Egg 
cluster,  d,  Same,  from  side,  e, 
Same,  from  above.  /,  Adult,  wings 
closed,  g,  Same,  wings  open,  c,  f, 
g,  natural  size  ;  a,  b,  slightly  en- 
larged; d,  c,  considerably  enlarged. 
Howard,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agri  Cir.  10. 


132 


GARDENING    Fou    THE    SOUTH. 


begin  extracting  the  juices  from  the  plant  and  continue 
to  do  so  throughout  their  entire  life. 

Plants  Injured. — Cabbage,  mustard,  turnips,  rutabaga, 
radish. 

Remedies. — The  only  sure  remedy  is  hand-picking  in 
the  early  spring,  when  the  first  bugs  are  noticed.  Radish 
and  rutabaga  seed  might  be  sown  to  serve  as  catch  plants, 
and  as  soon  as  the  bugs  are  detected  on  these  plants 

vigorous  spraying 
with  kerosene  emul- 
sion and  hand-pick- 
ing will  soon  greatly 
reduce  the  pest.  The 
ordinary  application 
of  Paris  green  fre- 
quently fails  to  kill 
them,  because  they 
live  by  sucking  the 
juices  and  not  eating 
I  the  leaves,  hence  the 
poisons  do  not  enter 
u        T    ,  their     bodies     when 

r  lg.  35— June  Bug.    Lachnosterna  fusca.    Riley, 

Div.  Ent.  IT.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  sprayed  on  the  sur- 

faces of  the  plants. 

June  Beetle;  White  Grub  (Lachnosterna  fusca,  Riley). 
The  beetles  fly  about  during  the  months  of  May  and  June 
feeding  on  young  and  tender  twigs  of  fruit  trees.  The 
work  of  destruction  is  done  at  night.  This  beetle  is  well 
known  to  children,  who  delight  in  catching  and  imprison- 
ing it  with  a  string  to  hear  its  buzzing  sound.  The  eggs 
are  laid  about  the  roots  of  grass  and,  when  hatched,  the 
grubs  feed  on  the  roots  of  young  plants  for  three  years 
before  they  come  forth  in  the  winged  state. 

Plant*  Injured. — Peach,  cherry,  fig,  strawberry. 

Remedies. — Fall  plowing  to  bring  the  grubs  to  the  sur* 


INSECTS,   FUNGI,    PLANT  DISEASES,   ETC. 


133 


face  and  expose  them  to  fowls  and  cold  weather.  Hand- 
picking  in  the  evening  and  early  morning  when  the  beetle 
makes  its  appearance  on  the  trees.  A  vessel  containing 
kerosene  is  held  under  the  limbs  and  the  beetles  are 
shaken  into  it. 

Leaf-Footed  Plant  Louse  (Leptoglossus  phyllopus, 
Linn.). — This  has  become  a  very  common  insect  in  the 
South,  and  it  commits  its  damage  by  sucking  the  juices 
from  plants  and  fruits.  It  is  well  recognized  by  the 
chocolate  color  of  the 
body  and  leaf-like  form 
of  the  shanks.  The 
eggs  are  deposited 
along  the  ribs  of  the 
leaves.  It  is  found  in 
most  portions  of  the 
(Julf  region. 

Plants  In  fund. — Cu- 
curbits, sweet  pota- 
toes, watermelons,  pe- 
can trees,  pear,  peach, 
strawberry,  Irish  pota- 
toes, orange  (first  came  into  prominence  in  the  South  as 
a  pest  on  the  orange  trees*). 

Remedies. — Hand-picking  is  the  certain  remedy,  but 
many  of  the  younger  forms  can  be  destroyed  by  a  free 
and  frequent  use  of  kerosene  emulsion. 

Melon  Louse  (Aphis  gossypii,  Glover). — This  insect  is 
called  "cotton  101180,"  or  "orange  aphis."  There  are  three 
forms  found  on  the  plants — viz. :  (1)  the  "  nymph,"  or  the 
recently  hatched  lice,  which  are  very  small  and  of  a 
greenish-yellow    color;    (2)  wingless    females,  yellow  in 


Fig.  36 — Leptof/lossus  phyllopus.  Twice 
natural  size.  Chittenden,  Div.  Ent. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Bulletin  No.  19. 


F.  H.  Chittenden  in  Bulletin  19,  n.  s.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  Div.  Ent. 


134 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


color;  (3)  winged  females,  quite  small,  ovate  with  trans- 
parent wings  containing  yellow  veins. 

Plants  Injured. — lied  clover,  orange,  melon,  purslane, 
morning-glory,  cotton,  pear,  dwarf  bean. 

Remedies. — Spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion  and 
pyrethrum. 

Melon  Worm;  Melon  Borer  {Margaronia  hyalinata, 
Linn.). — These  worms  bore  into  the  melon  and  eat  long, 

irregular  holes,  caus- 
ing the  rind  to  sour 
and  decay.  The  eggs 
are  laid  on  the  vines 
early  in  the  season 
by  a  moth  with 
white  transparent 
wings  containing 
black  borders.  The 
first  brood  hatched 
feeds  on  the  vines 
a  n  d  leaves,  while 
the  second  and  fol- 
lowing broods  de- 
stroy the  fruit. 

Plants     Injured. — 
Melons,  cucumbers. 

Remedies. 
Spraying  of  Paris 
green  during  the 
time  the  first  brood 
is  eating.  After  the  worms  enter  the  fruit,  poisoning  will 
not  avail,  and  it  will  become  necessary  to  destroy  the 
fruit  infested. 

The  Peach-Tree  Borer  (Sannina  exitiosa). — The  moth 
comes  abroad  from  midsummer  until  October.     Its  body 


Fig.  37 — Margaronia 
coons  and  adults. 
IT.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 


hyalinata.    Larva.    Co- 
Comstock,  Div.  Ent. 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC. 


135 


is  of  steel-blue  color,  with  an  orange  band  around  the  mid- 
dle of  the  abdomen  of  the  female.    Her  wings  are  blue, 


deposited  the  latter  part  of  summer,  at  the  base  of  the 
trunk,  on  the  soft  bark;  when  hatched  they  bore  their 
way  under  the  bark,  sometimes  proceeding  upwards 
along  the  trunk,  at  other  times  downward  into  the  root. 
Its  presence  is  made  known  in  spring  by  the  effusion  of 
gum;  as  it  does  not  penetrate  the  wood,  it  is  easily  traced 
by  its  holes  under  the  bark.    The  worm  is  soft,  white,  with 


Fig.  38 — Sannina  exitiosa.  a,  Adult  female,  b,  Adult 
male,  c,  Full  grown  larva,  d,  Female  pupa,  e,  Male 
pupa,  f,  Pupa  skin  extruded  partially  from  cocoon. 
All  natural  size.  Marlatt,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agri.  Cir.  17. 

a  tawny,  yellowish-red  head,  and  sixteen  feet,  growing 
to  over  half  an  inch  in  length.  It  forms  a  tough,  pod-like 
cocoon  on  the  side  of  the  root,  jutting  just  above  the  sur- 
face. Remedies  are  various.  Haul  the  earth  from  the 
collar  of  the  tree,  clean  away  the  gum,  and  cut  out  the 
grub  with  a  knife  and  kill  it;  or  pour  scalding  water  into 
his  haunts  from  the  spout  of  a  tea-kettle,  which  will  kill 
the  grub  and  benefit  the  tree;  leave  the  basin  about  the 
root  of  the  tree  open,  and  re-examine  a  few  days  later, 
as  some  of  the  worms  may  have  escaped.  Where  the 
mercury  does  not  usually  sink  belowT  8°  during  the  win- 
ter, it  is  best  to  leave  the  collar  of  the  tree  uncovered 


136  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

and  exposed  to  the  action  of  frost  during  winter.  Tn 
spring  a  small  mound  of  ashes,  or  slaked  lime,  or  even 
earth,  should  be  placed  about  the  base  of  the  trunk,  which 
will  render  the  borer  less  likely  to  attack  the  tree.  This 
should  be  removed  or  spread  out  around  the  tree  in 
autumn.  The  trees  should  be  closely  examined  in  autumn 
and  spring.  There  arc  also  certain  washes  recommended 
to  prevent  the  insect  from  entering  the  tree.  Two  may 
be  mentioned.  The  first  is  very  poisonous,  and  must  be 
used  with  great  care: 

1 — Soft  soap,  10     gallons. 

Corrosive  sublimate,  1|  ounces. 

Alcohol,  1    pint. 

Dissolve  the  sublimate  in  the  alcohol  and  add  the  soap. 

2 — Sour  or  buttermilk,  10  gallons. 

Hydraulic   cement,  10  pounds. 

These  washes  must  be  put  on  with  a  brush,  repeating 
every  two  weeks  until  after  the  moth  disappears.  Apply 
the  solution  from  below  the  ground  to  several  feet  above. 

The  Onion-Fly  (Phorbia  ceparum,  Meiger)  is  a  native  of 
Europe,  of  late  years  becomiDg  common  in  many  Ameri- 
can gardens,  and  wherever  found  is  very  destructive  to 
the  crop.  The  parent  insect,  is  a  small  ash  gray  fly,  about 
half  the  size  of  the  common  house-fly.  The  female  lays 
her  eggs  on  the  leaves,  when  they  are  very  young,  close 
to  the  earth.  As  soon  as  the  maggots  hatch,  which  is 
when  the  young  plants  are  about  the  size  of  a  quill,  they 
descend  between  the  coats  of  the  onion  to  its  base,  feed- 
ing upon  the  bottom  part  of  the  bulb,  which  soon  becomes 
rotten,  when  the  worm  leaves  it,  to  enter  the  earth  and 
complete  its  transformations.  Figure  30  represents  the 
larva  of  the  natural  size  at  a  and  at  b,  magnified  several 
times.  Figure  40  shows  the  way  in  which  the  insects 
work  upon  the  young  plant.     In  Figure  41  the  perfect 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC. 


137 


insect  is  given,  the  natural  size  of  which  is  indicated  by 
the  cross  lines,  and  in  the  same  figure  the  magnified  pupa 
or  chrysalis  is  shown  at  d,  and  the  actual  size  at  c. 

Remedies. — These  insects  increase  so  rapidly  that  un- 
less destroyed  at  their  first  appearance,  which  is  shown 
by  the  leaves  drooping  and  turning  yellow,  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  eradicate  them.  Such  plants  should  be  at 
once  pulled  up,  and  with  the  soil  in  which  they  grew, 
burned,  which  will  prevent  their  increase.  Applications 
of  soot  or  salt  upon  the  beds,  of  lime  water,  stale  urine, 


Fig.  39 


Fig.  41. 


and  tobacco  water,  are  also  employed,  and  beds  strewn 
with  fine  charcoal  are  said  to  be  less  liable  to  attack.  It 
is  difficult,  however,  to  reach  the  insect,  except  by  pulling 
up  the  bulb.  It  is  said  that  removing  the  earth  from  the 
onion  bulbs  as  soon  as  growth  has  well  commenced  will 
prevent  the  fly  from  depositing  its  eggs,  and  the  onion, 
being  nourished  by  its  fibrous  roots,  ripens  and  keeps 
better. 

Professor  Slingerland,  entomologist  of  the  Cornell 
Station,  New  York,  recommends  spraying  with  the  fol- 
lowing: Dissolve  one  pound  soap  in  half  gallon  water  and 
emulsify  with  one  pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid.  Spray 
freely  over  the  plants  as  soon  as  above  the  ground  and 
every  few  days  after. 


138 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


The  Curculio,  or  Plum  Weevil,  (Conotrachelus  Nenu- 
phar, Herbst),  is  a  short,  thick,  rough  beetle,  of  a  dark- 
brown  or  blackish  color,  varied  with  spots  of  white  and 


Fig.  42— Curculio  or  Plum  Weevil.   Conotrachelus  nenuphar,  Her. 
Riley,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Report  1888. 

yellow;  with  a  long  snout  hanging  down  in  front  like  an 
elephant's  trunk.  It  makes  a  small,  crescent-like  incision 
upon  the  side  of  the  plum  and  cherry,  just  after  they  are 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,   PLANT   DISEASES,    ETC.  139 

set,  in  which  it  drops  an  egg.  From  this  is  hatched  a 
small,  white,  footless  worm,  which  bores  into  the  fruit, 
causing  it  to  drop  prematurely  from  the  tree.  The  worm 
enters  the  ground,  and  in  three  or  four  weeks  comes  out, 
and  the  successive  broods  attack  the  plum,  apricot, 
cherry,  nectarine,  and  peach,  until  the  fruit  ripens.  Their 
incisions  have  been  found  in  the  limbs  of  the  pear  tree. 
The  beetle,  if  discovered,  feigus  death,  and  can  hardly  be 
distinguished  from  the  dried  flower  buds  by  careless  ob- 
servers. Picking  or  sweeping  up  the  fruit  as  fast  as  it 
drops,  and  boiling  it  for  pigs,  before  the  worm  can  enter 
the  earth  has  been  found  beneficial;  likewise  jarring  the 
tree  (by  striking  sharply  with  a  mallet  on  the  stump  of 
a  limb  removed  for  the  purpose)  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  the 
size  of  a  pea,  and  collecting  the  insects  on  a  white  sheet 
as  they  fall,  and  destroying  them.  As  the  insects  are 
torpid  in  the  morning,  that  is  the  best  time  for  the  opera- 
tion, which  should  be  kept  up  uutil  the  fruit  begins  to 
ripen.  Plant  all  stone  fruits  in  an  enclosure  by  them- 
selves in  which  pigs  and  poultry  are  admitted  ;  these  will 
collect  the  fruit  as  fast  as  it  falls,  and  tread  the  ground 
firmly  together,  so  that  it  is  not  easy  for  the  insects  to 
enter  it.  None  of  these  methods  will  be  fully  effectual 
if  there  are  neglected  trees  near  by  from  which  the  insect 
may  emigrate.  The  most  reliable  of  them  is  jarring  the 
trees,  and  destroying  the  insects  daily;  the  next  is  giving 
access  to  a  large  flock  of  ducks  and  chickens,  which,  de- 
stroying the  perfect  insect,  are  a  much  more  efficient 
remedy  than  the  pigs  alone. 

The  Squash- Vine  Borer  (Melittia  satyriniformis, 
Hbn.). — This  insect  feeds  on  the  interior  of  the  stem  of 
the  squash,  and  its  presence  is  not  detected  until  it  has 
been  in  the  stem  some  time,  and  has  grown  to  a  well- 
developed  larva.  The  leaves  of  the  plant  show  the 
damage  being  done  by  the  insect  by  wilting,  and  the 


140 


GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 


entire  plant  will  soon  die  unless  tne  insects  are  destroyed. 
The  adult  insect  is  a  moth  which  flies  during  the  heat 
of  the  day,  and  toward  the  close  of  day  it  lights  on  the 
leaves  in  a  rather  sluggish  condition.  The  eggs  are  laid 
on  all  parts  of  the  plant,  and  they  hatch  from  six  to  fifteen 
days  after  being  deposited.  The  caterpillars  are  small, 
white,  with  a  dark  head  and  a  few  scattered  hairs  over 


d  f 

Fig.  43 — Melittia  satyriniformis.  a,  Male  moth,  b,  Fe- 
male when  at  rest,  c,  Eggs  shown  on  bit  of  squash 
stem;  d,  Full  grown  larva  in  vine,  e,  Pupa.  /, 
Pupa  cell.  All  one-third  larger  than  natural  size. 
Div.  Ent.  Dept.  Agri.  Cir.  38. 

the  body.  When  full  grown  they  measure  about  one 
inch  in  length. 

/'hints  Attacked. — Squashes,  pumpkins,  gourds,  musk- 
melons,  cucumbers. 

Remedies. — Because  the  caterpillar  is  found  in  the 
stem  it  is  very  difficult  to  treat  it  with  spraying  methods, 
so  we  are  compelled  to  resort  to  cutting  the  insect  out  of 
the  stem  and  to  use  preventive  means.  Rotation  of  crops 
will  serve  to  check  the  trouble;  also  planting  trap  crops 
and  burning  these  when  the  eggs  are  deposited  on  them. 
Fall  harrowing  and  deep  spring  harrowing  have  also 
been  found  beneficial  in  exposing  the  pupae  or  cocoons 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC. 


141 


/-^Vi^x 


to  the  cold  air  and  the  birds  or  fowls.  This  followed  by 
deep  plowing  will  prevent  other  cocoons  that  may  escape 
from  reaching  the  surface  in  the  form  of  the  moths.  Burn 
all  dead  vines  and  squash  rubbish  after  the  squashes  are 
gathered.  During  the  growing  season  keep  the  plants 
vigorous  and  healthy.    (Chittenden.) 

The  Squash  Bug  (Anasa  tristis,  DeG.). — This  insect  is 
of  a  rusty  black  color  above,  and  yellowish  beneath;  of  a 
foul,  disgusting  smell ;  of  quick  motions.  It  eats  the  leaf 
and  stem,  and  at 
length  destroys  the 
stem.  It  lays  its 
dark  -  colored  eggs 
in  patches  upon  the 
under  surface  of 
the  leaf,  to  which 
they  adhere  strong- 
ly. As  s  o  on  as 
hatched,  the  young 
e  n  e  m  y  in  little 
swarms  commence 
feeding  upon  the 
leaf,  upon  its  under 
side,  which  soon 
withers.  They  are  quite  timid,  but  may  be  found  in  the 
cool  of  the  day  concealed  under  the  leaves  or  clods  of 
earth,  and  should  be  sought  for  while  the  vines  are  young, 
daily,  in  the  morning,  and  crushed  before  they  become 
numerous. 

The  Turnip  Flea  Beetle  (Phyllotreta  vittata,  Fab.). — 
This  is  a  small,  hard-shelled  insect,  of  a  smooth,  shining, 
brassy,  or  greenish-black  color,  about  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  in  length.  There  are  two  yellow  stripes  down  the 
wing  cases.  The  hinder  legs  are  formed  for  leaping.  It 
attacks  the  turnip,  and  other  plants  of  the  same  family, 


Fig.  44 — Anasa  tristis  nymphs,  a,  Newly 
hatched.  b,  Second  stage,  c,  Third 
stage.  d,  Fourth  stage,  c,  Fifth  stage. 
All  about  twice  natural  size.  Chittenden, 
Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Cir.  39. 


142 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


both  in  its  perfect  and  larva  states.  When  the  plants 
have  attained  some  size  the  injury  to  the  crop  is  slight, 
but  they  generally  take  the  young  plants  while  in  the  seed 
leaf,  and  destroy  the  crop  entirely  in  a  few  hours, 
whether  it  be  a  small  bed,  or  a  large  field. 

The  best  remedies  are  preventive,  such  as  to  roll  the 
surface  smoothly,  so  that  the  insects  may  find  no  hiding- 
places  in  the  soil,  to  sow  the  seed  in  drills,  and  in  a  fine, 

rich  soil,  and  apply  super- 
phosphate of    lime    upon 
the  seed  in  the  drills,  to 
b 


Fig.  45—Anasa  trislis.     a,  Mature 
female,     b,  Side  view  of  head. 

c,  abdominal  segments  of  male. 

d,  same  of  female,  a,  Twice 
natural  size ;  b,  c,  d,  slightly 
more  enlarged.  Chittenden, 
Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 
Cir.  39. 


Fig.  46—Phyllotrela  vitluta.  a, 
Larva,  b,  Adult.  Both  great- 
ly enlarged.  Riley,  Div.  Ent. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Report,  1884. 


apply  plenty  of  seed,  and  thin  out  the  plants  when  in 
the  rough  leaf.  Anything  that  will  accelerate  growth 
will  soon  place  the  crop  out  of  danger  from  these  little 
insects.  Some  sow  radish  seed  with  turnips,  as  the  flea 
prefers  the  young  radish  leaf.  If  they  once  attack  the 
plants,  dusting  them  with  lime  ashes  and  soot  is  some- 
times useful,  but  when  in  great  numbers,  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  save  the  young  crop.  Kerosene  emulsion 
should  be  sprayed  around  the  roots  and  stems  to  destroy 
eggs  and  larvae. 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT   DISEASES,   ETC. 


14: 


The  Oyster-Shell  Bark  Louse  (Mytilaspis  Pwnorum, 
Bouche). — This  is  probably  the  commonest  and  most 
widespread,  and  consequently  the  best  known,  of  any  of 
the  orchard  scales.  It  is  found  all  over  the  world.  It  is 
found  in  the  United  States  practically  wherever  apples 


Fig.  47 — Mytilaspis  pomorum.  a,  Female  scale  from  be- 
low, showing  eggs,  b,  Same  from  above,  greatly  en- 
larged, e,  Female  scales,  d,  Male  scale,  enlarged. 
e,  Male  scale  on  twig,  natural  size.  Howard,  Div. 
Ent.  TJ.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 

and  pears  are  grown.  If,  during  the  winter,  one  of  the 
female  scales  be  lifted,  it  will  be  found  to  contain  the 
shriveled  body  of  the  dead  female,  under  the  anterior  or 
more  pointed  portion,  while  behind  this  the  yellowish- 
white  eggs  are  thickly  massed  together  back  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  scale.  Under  each  scale  the  eggs  number 
from  forty-two  to  eighty-six.    The  young  hatch  from  thesp 


144 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


eggs  in  spring,  wander  out  upon  the  twigs,  and  settle  at 
once.  With  this  species  the  young  twigs  are  generally 
the  only  parts  of  the  tree  seriously  affected.  Older  twigs, 
howTever,  are  also  attacked,  and  many  specimens  of  the 
insect  may  be  found  upon  the  trunk.  There  is  generally 
only  one  brood  in  most  sections  of  the  country,  although 

in  the  far  South 
there  may  be  two 
broods  occurring  in 
each  year.  After  in- 
serting its  beak  and 
settling,  the  female 
molts  twice,  and  be- 
gins the  formation 
of  the  scale,  which  is 
secreted  mainly 
from  the  hinder  por- 
tions of  the  body 
and  extends  back- 
ward, the  two  cast 
skins  remaining  in 
an  overlapping  posi- 
tion on  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  scale. 
The  male  scale  is 
much  smaller  than 
the  female  scale,  as 
indicated  in  the  figure,  and  is  otherwise  distinguished 
by  a  fewr  structural  peculiarities.  In  the  first  place,  there 
is  but  one  cast  skin  at  its  anterior  extremity,  and  in  the 
next  place,  the  hinder  portion  of  the  scale  is  hinged  in 
such  a  way  that  it  lifts  up  like  a  flap,  permitting  the 
escape  of  the  adult  male.   (Howard.) 

Plant*  Attacked. — Apple,  pear,  plum,  quince,  raspberry, 
currant,  maple,  ash,  elm  and  other  forest  trees. 


Fig.  48 — Aspidiotus  )><  rnifiusux.  c,  Adult 
female  removed  from  scale,  showing  em- 
bryonic young,  greatly  enlarged,  d,  Anal 
plate,  still  more  enlarged.  Howard.  Div. 
Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT   DISEASES,    ETC. 


145 


Besides  the  San  Jose  scale  and  the  oyster-shell  bark 
louse  there  are  other  scales  which  are  destructive  to  fruit 
and  other  trees  iu  the  South.  Among  the  number  may  be 
mentioned  the  scurfy  bark  louse  (Chionaspis  furfurus, 
Fitch);  the  greedy  scale  (Aspidiotus  camelliac,  Sign.);  the 
English  walnut  scale  (Aspidiotus  juglans-regiae,  Corns.); 
the  new  peach  scale 
Mor- 


(Diaspis    lanatm 
gan  &  Cock.). 

Remedies. — Two  of 
our  common  orchard 
scales,  viz.,  the  scurfy 
bark  louse  and  the 
oyster-shell  bark  louse, 
hibernate  in  the  egg 
state,  and  their  hatch- 
ing is  comparatively 
uniform.  The  approxi- 
mate date  throughout 
the  middle  belt  of  the 
country  is  from  the 
middle  to  the  end  of 
May.  Moreover,  the 
larvae  are  compara- 
tively slow  to  settle, 
and   the   scale   at   first 


Fig.  49 — San  Jose  Scale,  a,  Young  larva, 
greatly  enlarged.  I>,  Antenna  of  same, 
still  more  enlarged.  Howard,  Div. 
Ent.  Cir.  3,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 


is  not  very  dense.  Therefore, 
one,  or,  at  the  most,  two  applications  of  kerosene-soap 
emulsion,  diluted  with  ten  parts  of  water,  made  about  the 
first  of  June,  will  hold  these  two  species  well  in  check. 
(Howard.) 

San  Jose  Scale  (Aspidiotus  gerniciosus,  Comst.).— This 
is  one  ot  the  most  destructive  insects  which  attack  the 
apple.  It  is  becoming  very  widely  spread  throughout  the 
United  States,  and  when  it  finds  lodgement  in  an  orchard 
heroic  measures  are  required  to  eradicate  the  pest.  Great 

10 


140 


OAKDESI^G    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


care  should  be  exercised  when  purchasing  trees  to  buy 
only  from  those  nurserymen  who  are  known  to  be  relia- 
ble, and  who  are  provided  with  satisfactory  bills  of  health 
signed  by  well-known  entomologists. 

Messrs.  Howard  and  Marlett,  of  the  Division  of  Ento- 
mology of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
have  made  extensive  experiments  with  the  various 
methods  recommended  for  the  destruction  of  this  insect, 
and  their  studies  concerning  the  life  history  of  the  scale 


Fig.  50— San  Jose  Scale.   Male  adult,  greatly  enlarged. 
Howard,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Cir.  3. 

have  been  so  full  and  complete  the  summary  made  by 
them  is  given.  The  illustrations  are  also  taken  from  the 
publications  of  these  entomologists: 

"  The  scale  is  not  readily  detected  by  the  casual  ob- 
server, and  consequently  often  remains  unnoticed  until 
the  death  of  the  tree  calls  attention  to  it.  Unfortunately, 
it  multiplies  rapidly.  Each  adult  female  continues  to 
give  birth  to  living  young  for  a  long  period  (six  weeks), 
and  there  are  several  (probably  four)  generations  each 
year.  It  infests  the  stems,  twigs,  leaves,  fruit  of  nearly 
all  deciduous  trees,  and  is  extremely  difficult  to  kill.  The 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC. 


u ; 


young  insects  are  almost  microscopic  in  size,  being  one- 
hundredth  of  an  inch  in  length,  consequently  not  seen 
except  by  the  practiced  eye.  The  mature  insects,  as 
already  indicated,  arc  very  small  and  without  some  ex- 
perience will  be  readily  overlooked,  even  by  good  ob- 
servers. Also,  persons  uninformed  might  easily  mistake 
other  insects  for  this  species.  The  most  common  scale 
upon  orchard  trees  is  the 
'scurfy  bark  louse'  (CJiio- 
naspis  furfurus),  but  this 
differs  from  the  San  Jose 
scale  in  some  important 
particulars.  First,  the 
scurfy  scale  is  elongate, 
never  circular  in  outline; 
lies  flat  upon  the  bark,  and 
is  papery  white  in  color; 
second,  this  scale  passes 
the  winter  in  the  egg  state 
and  is  single  brooded, 
while,  on  the  contrary,  the 
San  Jose  Scale  passes  the 
winter  in  all  stages,  from 


Fig.  51  — San  Jose  Scale.  Apple 
branch,  with  scale  in  situ,  natural 
size.  Enlarged  scales  above  at  left. 
Howard,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agri.  Cir.  3. 


the  minute  egg,  just  cover- 
ed with  the  scale,  up  to 
mature  individuals."* 

Plant*  Injured. — Almond,  apricot,  acacia,  alder,  cherry, 
currant,  gooseberry,  hawthorn,  linden,  osage  orange, 
pear,  peach,  plum,  persimmon,  pecan,  quince,  raspberry, 
rose,  spirea,  weeping  willow. 

Remedies. — "(1.)  In  all  cases  of  recent  or  slight  attack 
the  affected  stock  should  be  promptly  uprooted  and 
burned.  No  measure  is  so  sure  as  this,  and  the  danger  of 
spread  is  so  great  that  this  course  seems  fully  warranted. 


♦Circular  No.  42,  Div.  Ent.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 


148 


GAKDEMNo     I'm;    THE    SOUTH. 


"(2.)  In  cases  of  long  standing  and  wide  extent  the 
affected  stock  should  be  cut  back  severely  and  treated 
with  winter  soap  wash;  stock  badly  incrusted  with  scale 
should  be  cut  out  at  once  and  burned.  The  lessening 
of  the  vitality,  together  with  the  poisoning  of  the  sap- 
wood  already  affect- 
ed by  the  scale  in 
such  cases,  will  usu- 
ally prevent  the 
plant  fro  in  ever 
again  be  c o  m  i  n  g 
healthy,  and  gene- 
rally it  is  beyond 
help.  We  wish  par- 
ticularly to  impress 
upon  the  minds  of 
fiu it  growers  that  as 
soon  as  this  insect  is 
found  to  occur  in  an 
orchard  the  m  os  t 
strenuous  measures 
must  be  taken  to 
stamp  it  out.  No 
half-way  steps  will 
suffice.     The  individ- 

T..     ro    c,       T    ,  ..    ,           t,             i  ual    must    remember 

Fig.  52— San   Jose   Scale,     a,   Pear,   mod- 
erately infested,  natural  size,    b,  Female  that   not   only  are  his 
scale,  enlarged.    Howard,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  own   interests  vitally 
Dept.  Agri.  Cir.  3.  at  stak^  but  those  of 

the  entire  community  in  which  he  resides.  lie  may  think 
that  he  cannot  bear  the  loss,  but  the  loss  in  consequence  of 
the  slightest  neglect  will  be  much  greater.  The  fact,  too, 
that  there  is  a  community  of  interests  among  fruit  glow- 
ers in  this  matter  must  not  be  lost  sight  of.  Fruit  growers 
must  be  mutually  helpful  in  an  emergency  like  this. 


I.NSKCTS,     Fl'.\(;l,     PLANT     IUSKASKS,     LT< '. 


149 


"(3.)  As  precautionary  measures  to  prevent  the  intro- 
duction of  the  scale  into  now  districts,  the  following  con- 
siderations are  important:  No  orchardist  should  admit  a 
single  young  fruit  tree  or  a  single  cutting  from  a  distance 
into  his  orchard  without  first  carefully  examining  it  and 


Fig.  53— Protoparce  Carolina,   a,  Aduit  moth,    b,  Full  grown  larva,  c,  Pupa, 
natural  size.      Howard,  Div.  Ent.  IT.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Year  Book,  1898. 

satisfying  himself  conclusively  that  it  does  not  carry  a 
single  specimen  of  the  Sau  Jose  scale;  he  should  insist, 
also,  on  a  guaranty  from  the  nurseryman  of  such  free- 
dom. In  addition,  no  fruit  should  be  brought  upon  the 
premises  without  previous  careful  inspection.  If  this 
course  is  adopted  by  every  one  interested,  without  excep- 
tion, the  rate  of  spread  of  the  species  may  be  limited  to 


150 


GARDENING   FOR   THE    SOUTH. 


the  comparatively  slight  natural  extension  by  crawling, 
by  winds,  and  by  the  aid  of  other  insects  and  birds."* 

Tobacco  Worm,  ok  Tomato  Worm,  or  Horn  Worm 
(Protoparse  Carolina,  Linn.,  and  P.  celeus,  Ilubn.). — "  There 
are  two  species  of  large  sphinx  moths  whose  larvae,  or 
caterpillars,  eat  the  leaves  of  tobacco,  tomato  and  allied 
plants,  including,  occasionally,  the  Irish  potato.  These 
caterpillars,  from  the  fact  that  each  bears  upon  one  of 
the  posterior  segments  of  the  body  a  rather  stout,  curved 

horn,  have  become 
popularly  known  as 
horn  worms.  To- 
bacco growers  do 
not  distinguish  be- 
tween the  two  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  horn 
worms,  and  for  prac- 

Fig.   54— Bruehus  pisorum.      a,  Adult  beetle,  tical    purposes    it    is 

b,  Larva,      c,  Pupa.     All  greatly  enlarged,  not       in      the      least 

Chittenden,  Div  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Year  necegsarv    +]ia+    +hev 

Book,  1898.  J  ,.                .    f 

should  distinguish 
them.  The  curious  brown  pupa  into  which  the  cater- 
pillar transforms,  which  is  found  under  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  and  which  is  at  once  recognized  by  the 
handle-shaped  process  which  issues  from  the  top  of  the 
head,  is  the  form  from  which  issues  the  adult  moths. 
Both  of  the  insects  occur  more  or  less  abundantly  in  the 
tobacco  fields  over  the  entire  tobacco-growing  regions  of 
the  United  States.  In  certain  localities  one  species  will 
be  much  more  abundant  than  the  other,  and  in  other 
localities  the  numbers  will  be  more  evenly  divided.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  celeus  is  the  more  northern 
species,  while  further  South  Carolina  is  apt  to  be  much 
the  more  common."  (Howard.) 


Circular  No.  42,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC.  151 

Plants  Attacked. — Tobacco,  tomato,  Irish  potato,  egg- 
plant. 

Remedies. — Hand-picking  is  sure,  and,  because  of  the 
large  size  of  the  worms,  readily  and  easily  accomplished. 
Jamestown  (Jinison)  weeds  are  sometimes  cultivated,  the 
flowers  of  which  the  moths  arc  fond  of  visiting  for  the 
nectar  they  contain.  If  these  flowers  are  poisoned  with 
a  small  quantity  of  a  solution  made  of  cobalt,  one  ounce; 
molasses,  one  pint;  water,  one  pint,  the  moths  will  be 


6  a,  c 

Fig.  55 — Bruchus  obteclus.      a,   Beetle,      b,  Larva,      c,  Pupa.      All 

greatly  enlarged.     Chittenden,  Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept. 

Agri.  Year  Book,  1808. 

destroyed  when  they  suck  the  flowers  for  the  nectar.   This 
method  has  been  practiced  with  success  in  Florida. 

Weevils,  Pea  and  Bean  (Bruchus  pisorum,  Linn.;  B. 
obtains,  S. ;  />*.  quadrimaeulatus,  Fab.). — These  weevils  are 
well  known  by  all  gardeners,  and  the  damage  committed 
by  them  is  very  great.  The  adult  insect  deposits  its  eggs 
on  the  inside  of  the  green  pod  by  making  a  slit  on  the 
suture  through  which  the  eggs  are  placed.  The  grubs 
enter  the  seed  and  feed  on  the  starch  stored  up  by  the 
plant  for  the  germ. 

Remedies. — Seed,  which  are  attacked  by  the  weevils 
should  be  treated  with  the  fumes  of  carbon  bisulphide. 


152 


GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 


A  small  quantity  of  the  seeds  are  placed  in  a  tight  box 
and  a  portion  of  the  carbon  bisulphide  is  poured  over 
them;  another  layer  of  seeds  and  fresh  carbon  bisulphide, 
and  this  operation  is  repeated  until  the  box  is  filled.  A 
close  cover  is  put  on  and  the  box  allowed  to  stand  for  a 
day  or  two,  when  the  fumes  of  the  poison  will  kill  all 
of  the  insects  in  the  seeds.  In  the  use  of  this  chemical 
greavt  care  must  be  taken  because  of  its  inflammable  quali- 
ties. See  that  no 
smoking  is  permitted 
within  the  room. 
where  the  work  is 
being  conducted,  or 
a  disastrous  explo- 
sion will  result. 

Hetcrodera  radi- 
cicola  (  G  r  e  e  f  f  ). 
Mull;  Nematode 
root-galls.  These 
arc  enlargements 
on  the  roots  of  cer- 
at lacked  by  a  microscopical  worm,  which 
the  roots.  Professor  Atkin- 
son, in  his  study  of  this  worm  in  Bulletin  \)  of  the  Alabama 
Experiment  Htation,  gives  the  following  description  of 
the  disease:  "The  surface  of  the  gall  is  at  first  smooth, 
more  or  less  undulate,  or  papillate,  but  becomes  later 
roughened,  scurfy,  or  cracked,  and  finally  decay  of  the 
tissues  sets  in.  When  the  roots  begin  to  die  they  send 
out  new  roots  in  the  efforts  of  the  plant  to  recover  from 
the  effects  of  the  disease.  These  roots  in  turn  are  at- 
tacked and  deformed." 

Inasmuch  as  the  worm  is  found  in  the  tissues  of  the 
roots  and  the  openings  they  make  are  so  minute  it  is 
impossible  to  reach  them  with  the  ordinary  methods  of 


Fig.  56—J:ntc]u<x  quadrimaculatus.  a,  Beetle. 
b,  Larva,  c,  Pupa.  All  enlarged.  Chitten- 
den, Div.  Ent.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Year  Book, 

1898. 


tain    plant; 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC. 


153 


applications  of  vermicides,  it  is  therefore  recommended 
to  sterilize  the  soil  by  starvation  of  the  worm — that  is, 
planting  only  those  plants  which  are  known  to  be  free 
from  the  attacks — and  by  clean 
cultivation. 

PLANT    DISEASES. 

These  diseases  are  referred  to 
what  are  called  fungi,  which  be- 
long to  the  Cryptogamic  branch 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  A 
fungus  is  a  plant  that  is  devoid  of 
the  coloring  matter  or  chloro- 
phyll so  necessary  in  the  higher 
plants  for  a  proper  assimilation 
of  the  crude  food.  This  coloring 
matter  being  absent  in  the  body 
of  the  fungus,  it  becomes  neces- 
sary for  it  to  seek  for  its  food  in 
the  flowering  plants,  where  it  is 
in  a  condition  to  be  immediately 
assimilated.  The  damage,  there- 
fore, to  the  plant  is  caused  by  the 
hyphae,  or  thread-like  forms  of 
the  fungus  penetrating  the  tis- 
sues and  drawing  the  sap  and 
nutritive  fluids,  and  thus  eventu- 
ally starving  the  plant  to  death. 
These  hyphae  are  either  separate 
or  in  bundles;  and  the  entire 
mass  of  vegetative  portion  is 
called  mycelium. 

The  reproduction  of  the  fungus  is  by  means  of  spores 
which  are  developed  on  the  mycelium.  These  spores 
under  the  proper  conditions  of  heat  and  moisture  throw 


Fig.  57— Nematode  on  Carrot. 
California  Bulletin. 


154  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

out  fine  filaments  and  rapidly  grow  into  a  mature  fungus. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  these  spores,  or,  rather,  two  con- 
ditions. One  stage  belongs  to  the  summer  period,  and  is 
to  be  found  on  the  surface  of  the  host,  while  the  other 
belongs  to  the  winter,  and  is  deeply  seated  in  the  tissues 
of  the  plant  upon  which  the  fungus  was  developed.  The 
fruit  and  leaves  are  common  places  for  the  latter  stage 
of  the  fungus. 

From  the  fact  that  the  fungus  soon  tinds  its  way  into 
the  tissues  of  the  host  plant  it  will  be  readily  understood 
that  the  application  of  remedies  to  the  surface  will  have 
but  little,  if  any,  effect  in  destroying  the  disease.  We 
must,  therefore,  greatly  rely  upon  preventive  rather  than 
curative  methods. 

There  are  many  species  of  fungi  attacking  the  culti- 
vated plants,  and  the  vigorous  investigations  of  the 
Experiment  Station  workers  all  over  the  United  States 
are  bringing  to  light  new  forms  each  year,  but  the  limited 
character  of  this  book  will  permit  the  mention  of  only  a 
few  of  the  most  destructive  and  troublesome  species. 

Bacillus  amylovorus  (Burrill).  Fire  blight,  frozen  sap 
blight,  pear  blight.  This  serious  destruction  of  the  pear 
tree  is  the  result  of  the  attack  of  a  minute  bacterium 
which  causes  the  fermentation  of  the  sap  and  the  loaves 
to  turn  a  dark  brown,  and  even  the  wood  is  made  to  crack 
under  the  freezing  and  thawing  of  tissues  in  their  un- 
healthy condition.  By  this  cracking  of  the  wood  the 
bacteria  are  often  given  access  to  the  older  portions 
of  the  tree.  The  first  attack  made  by  the  bacteria  is 
through  the  nectaries  and  stigmas  of  the  flowers,  in  the 
soft  tissues  of  the  twigs  and  leaves  where  a  wound  has 
been  made.  When  a  diseased  tree  is  permitted  to  stand 
the  germs  are  transmitted  by  insects  to  the  healthy  trees, 
as  they  fly  from  one  flower  to  another  seeking  for  the 
nectar.     When    placed  in  this    favorable    condition  the 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT   DISEASES,    ETC.  155 

bacteria  soon  begin  to  multiply  with  great  activity,  and 
•  but  a  short  time  will  elapse  before  the  twig  shows  a 
sickly  indication. 

The  only  remedy  now  known  is  to  cut  away  the  dis- 
eased portions  into  the  healthy  part  and  carefully  burn 
the  wood.  This  may  not  in  all  cases  prevent  the  trouble 
appearing  again,  but  nothing  better  is  now  known. 

Gladosporium  fulvum  (Cke.),  Cladosporium  carpophilum 
(Thum.)  Leaf  blight  of  the  tomato  and  brown  spot  of  the 
peach,  plum  and  cherry.  The  first  attacks  the  leaf  of  the 
tomato  by  turning  it  yellow  in  spots  and*  eventually 
covering  the  entire  foliage.  (A  badly  diseased  plant  is 
unable  to  grow  leaves  and  have  sufficient  vitality  to  de- 
velop fruit  also.)  The  C.  carpophilum  shows  on  the  fruit  of 
the  peach,  plum  and  cherry  in  brown,  velvety  spots,  in- 
creasing in  size  until  they  run  together  in  the  shape  of 
large  patches. 

The  remedy  recommended  is  spraying  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  every  week  or  so  to  protect  the  new  leaves  and 
fruit.    See  the  table  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

Caeoma  nitens  (Schw.).  Red  rust  of  the  raspberry  and 
blackberry.  This  disease  lives  in  the  tissues  of  the  plants 
and  breaks  through  to  the  surface,  where  it  matures  its 
orange-colored  spores,  on  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves. 
The  fungus,  however,  infests  the  entire  plant,  and  it  is 
supposed  that  it  finds  its  way  into  the  tissues  through 
the  roots.  The  spores  live  through  the  winter  in  the 
leaves  which  fall  to  the  ground.  The  mycelium  is  peren- 
nial and  remains  in  the  stem  during  the  winter. 

The  only  sure  remedy  is  to  dig  up  all  diseased  canes 
and  burn  them.  Treat  in  the  same  way  all  wild  plants 
found  in  the  neighborhood  containing  the  rust.  Do  not 
plant  any  species  of  the  raspberry  and  blackberry  in  the 
same  locality  for  three  or  four  years.  If  but  few  of  the 
plants  are  infected  spray  the  healthy  ones  with  copper 


156 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


sulphate  solution  or  Bordeaux  mixture.    The  anthracnose 

is  another  disease  which  is  destructive  to  the  raspberry. 

Ceratocystis  fimbriata  (Ell.  &  Hals.).    Sweet  potato  black 

rot.    The  beginning  of  the  disease  is  shown  by  the  appear- 


Fig.  58— Anthracnose  of   Raspberry.      Gloeospvnum 
venetum.     Div.  Veg  Phys  and  Path. 


ance  of  dark  olive-brown,  or  green  patches,  on  the  young 
sprouts  or  upon  the  potato,  entering  the  tissues.  The 
fungus  grows  rapidly  and  soon  causes  death  to  the  sprout 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES, 


ETC. 


1.57 


by  girdling',  and,  in  the  case  of  the  potato,  covering  the 


fungus  kind,  the  trouble  is  the  result  of  the  mycelium 
entering  the  tissues  and  feeding  on  the  starch  grains  and 
cellular  tissues. 

Only  healthy  potatoes  must  be  planted  for  the  slips  or 
sprouts,  and  no  sickly  slips  must  be  transplanted;  do  not 
use  hog  manures  in  quantities,  as  this  seems  to  encourage 
the  development  of  the  fungus;  (dear  the  field  of  all 
debris  and  small  potatoes  after  digging;  and  in  case  of 


Fig. 


59— Soft-rot  of   Sweet  Potato.     Ehizopu 
after  Halstt  ad. 


•■■•' 


nigricans  (Ehr.).     Redrawn 


infested  fields,  rotate  the  crop,  planting  other  than  root 
crops. 

Rhizopus  nigricans  (Ehr.).  Soft  rot  of  the  sweet  potato. 
Dr.  Byron  I),  llalsted  gives  the  following  account  of  this 
disease:  This  form  of  decay,  while  it  may  be  met  with  in 
the  field  at  digging  time,  is  usually  found  most  destruc- 
tive in  the  storeroom,  where  it  causes  the  attacked  roots 
to  quickly  become  soft  and  worthless.  In  the  engraving- 
is  shown  a  root  in  which  the  mould  has  penetrated  for 
nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  potato.  As  a  rule,  the 
mould  effects  an  entrance  through  the  upper  end  of  the 
potato,  where  the  latter  was  separated  from  the  main 
root,  because  the  rind  of  the  root,  on  account  of  its  tough- 
ness, in  a  measure  prevents  the  entrance  of  the  fungus. 


158  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Should  there  be  a  break  at  any  other  point,  this  pro- 
vides a  suitable  poiut  for  the  attack  of  the  disease. 
The  roots  are  more  or  less  cut  or  bruised  in  harvesting, 
and  these  places  favor  the  entrance  of  the  fungus.  As 
the  mould  advances  within  the  tissue  of  the  plant  it 
exudes  a  substance  which  is  very  active  in  causing  the 
starch  in  the  potato  to  dissolve,  as  also  the  walls  of  the 
cells  to  become  partially  decomposed.  In  this  way  the 
juice  from  the  decaying  sweet  potato  is  able  to  induce 
a  similar  decay  in  healthy  roots. 

It  is  quite  safe  to  assume  that  the  mould  makes  its 
entrance  into  the  potato  from  the  surrounding  medium, 
and  usually  after  the  roots  have  been  harvested.  It  does 
not,  as  far  as  known,  begin  by  infecting  the  leaves  of  the 
growing  plant,  and  then  pass  down  the  stem,  as  is  true 
with  the  soft  rot  of  the  Irish  potato.  The  fact  that  it 
finds  broken,  bruised  or  cut  spots  in  the  roots  favor- 
able places  for  entrance  suggests  the  importance  of 
being  careful  in  harvesting  and  subsequent  handling, 
that  the  least  possible  harm  shall  come  to  the  skin  of 
the  roots.  It  is  also  true  that  the  soft  rot  is  greatly 
favored  by  a  moist  atmosphere,  especially  shortly  after 
digging,  at  the  time  the  roots  are  undergoing  the 
process  known  as  "  sweating."  At  this  critical  period 
it  is  very  necessary  that  the  potatoes  be  stored  in  a 
well-ventilated  room,  where  a  constant  temperature 
of  not  far  from  seventy  degrees,  or  about  that  of  a  living 
room,  may  be  sustained.  All  soft  potatoes  should  be 
sorted  from  the  healthy  ones  and  destroyed. 

Cercospora  Apii  (Fries.).  Celery-leaf  blight.  The  evi- 
dence of  the  fungus  is  the  appearance  of  pale  yellow- 
green  spots  on  both  sides  of  the  leaves,  about  one-fourth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter.  These  will  soon  change  to  a 
brown  color  with  a  lighter  colored  center,  and,  if  per- 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT   DISEASES,    ETC. 


159 


mitted  to  have  its  way,  the  disease  will  cause  the  leaf 
to  dry  up  and  became  browned  over  its  entire  surface. 

Remove  all  infected  leaves  and  watch  the  plants  for 
the  disease,  so  that  all  parts  attacked  may  be  destroyed. 


Fig.  60— Leaf  Curl.  Exoascus  deformans.  Berk, 
on  Plum  leaves  (after  Atkinson).  Cornell  Bulle- 
tin 73. 

There  is  no  sure  remedy  in  the  shape  of  spraying  after 
the  mycelium  has  found  its  way  into  the  tissues. 

Damping    Off    (generally    attributed    to    the    fungus 


100  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Artotrogus  debaryanus,  II esse).  The  disease  occurs  iu  the 
hot-bed  or  greenhouse,  and  rots  off  the  young  seedlings 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  tissues  are  weak- 
ened by  the  attack  of  the  fungus,  and  the  plant  falls  to 
the  ground.  A  number  of  fungi  are  also  responsible  for 
this  trouble,  and  great  encouragement  is  given  to  them 
in  making  the  attack  by  the  damp  condition  of  the  soil, 
the  high  temperature  and  the  humid  atmosphere. 

In  the  case  of  seed  beds  and  greenhouses  the  remedy 
is  to  change  the  soil  and  ventilate,  and  transplant  only 
the  healthy  plants.     Do  not  water  to  excess. 

Exoascus  deformans  (Brek.),  Fuckel,  Peach  leaf  curl; 
Exoascus  pruni,  Fuckel,  Plum  pockets.  The  peach  leaf 
curl  is  caused  by  the  attack  of  a  fungus  wdiich  makes  the 
leaves  drop  early  in  the  summer,  and  if  the  disease  is 
very  severe  the  entire  foliage  may  fall,  followed  by  the 
fruit.  The  fungus  seems  to  be  developed  just  after  a  cold, 
wret  period  before  the  leaves  put  forth.  The  curling  of  the 
leaf  is  due  to  the  growth  of  the  mycelium  in  the  tissues, 
and  the  spores  give  the  surface  a  mealy  cast.  The  fungus 
remains  in  the  fallen  leaves  and  branches  through  the  win- 
ter, ready  to  renewT  the  attack  at  the  opening  of  the  spring. 

The  remedy  recommended  by  some  experimenters  is 
to  prune  back  the  twigs  and  spray  with  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture before  the  buds  appear,  repeating  the  operation 
after  the  trees  are  out  of  bloom  and  again  at  the  end  of 
two  weeks.  In  the  use  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  care 
must  be  taken  to  have  an  excess  of  lime  in  the  mixture, 
so  as  to  prevent  injury  to  the  leaves. 

The  plum  pockets  are  the  diseased  fruits  on  the  plum 
tree.  The  mycelium  pass  the  winter  in  the  fruit-bearing 
branches,  and  as  soon  as  the  ovaries  appear  in  the  spring 
the  fungus  enters  them  and  stimulates  them  so  that  the 
plum  becomes  enlarged  and  the  tissues  dry  up  and  as- 
sume a  spongy  cast. 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC. 


161 


The  diseased  fruits  and  branches  should  be  burned, 
and  in  the  spring  the  trees  must  be  sprayed  with  solu- 
tion of  copper  sulphate,  which  Will  help  greatly  in  check- 
ing the  fungus,  and  an  occasional  application  of  Bordeaux 
mixture  will  still  further  overcome  the  trouble. 


Fig  61— Apple  Scab      Fusicladium  dendriticum. 

Entomosporium  macidatum  (Lev.).  Leaf  blight  and  crack- 
ing of  the  pear;  also  found  on  the  quince.  This  fungus 
first  makes  its  appearance  on  the  leaves  as  small,  brown 
spots  which  soon  enlarge  to  considerable  patches.  Later 
in  the  season  black  spots  are  seen  in  the  center  of  the 
brown  patches,  which  are  the  spores.  The  disease  begins 
early  in  the  spring,  and  the  entire  foliage  will  become 
11 


162  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

infested,  and  the  tree  will  become  defoliated.  In  many 
instances  the  wood  and  the  fruit  also  become  affected 
with  the  fungus.  In  the  case  of  the  fruit  the  surface 
shows  carmine  red  spots,  which  turn  dark  afterwards, 
and  the  skin  becomes  roughened  and  then  cracks,  making 
an  unsightly  fruit  for  market. 

This  disease  can  be  kept  in  check  by  the  use  of  Bor- 
deaux mixture  at  intervals  of  two  weeks  until  about  the 
1st  of  August.  The  first  application  should  be  made 
before  the  buds  appear  and  three  others  at  intervals  of 
ten  days.  Burn  all  leaves  which  fall  from  the  tree  that  is 
affected  with  the  disease. 

Fusicladium  dendriticum  (Fckl.).  Apple  scab,  leaf  blight, 
or  leaf  mildew.  There  are  apparently  two  forms  of  this 
fungus,  one  attacking  the  leaves  and  the  other  the  fruit; 
but,  in  fact,  it  is  the  same  disease.  For  some  years  prior 
to  1873  it  was  supposed  by  observers  to  be  two  distinct 
fungi,  but  Professor  M.  C.  Cooke  has  shown  that  they  are 
identical.  The  appearance  on  the  leaves  is  in  the  form  of 
small  olive-green  spots,  which  as  they  increase  in  size  as- 
sume a  velvety  appearance  with  the  borders  more  or  less 
irregular.  The  fruit  shows  a  similar  condition  of  the  at- 
tack. There  is  generally  a  light  colored  ring  around  the 
borders  of  the  spot.  It  has  been  determined  that  dry,  hot 
summers  are  unfavorable  to  the  development  of  the  fun- 
gus, while  wet  springs  and  summers,  and  a  cool  condition 
of  the  atmosphere,  will  cause  the  fungi  to  grow  with  con- 
siderable vigor. 

This  fungus  does  not  penetrate  far  into  the  tissues,  and 
in  its  first  stages  it  is  exposed  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves 
and  fruit,  so  that  spraying  will  kill  the  spores,  but  the 
difficulty  consists  in  the  fact  that  the  solutions  which 
are  strong  enough  to  accomplish  this  end  will  also  de- 
stroy the  foliage  of  the  tree.  We  must,  therefore,  com- 
mence spraying  in  early  spring  before  the  buds  begin  to 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES.    ETC. 


163 


expand,  using  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper.  When  the 
blossoms  have  fallen  repeat  the  spraying  with  the  Bor- 
deaux mixture,  and  make  two  or  three  applications  if  the 
season  is  wet. 

Laestadia  Mdwelli  (Ell.),  Via.  and  Rav.  Black  rot  of  the 
grape.  This  disease 
a  1 1  a  c  k  s  both  the 
fruit  and  the  leaves, 
the  former  most  se- 
verely. When  about 
full  grown  there  ap- 
pear on  the  grapes 
spots  of  a  brown  or 
purple  color,  which 
in  a  few  days  extend 
over  the  entire  sur- 
face, with  the  center 
somewhat  d  a  r  k  e  r. 
Black  pimples  over 
the  diseased  part  are 
characteristic  fea- 
tures of  the  fungus. 
The  fruit  soon 
shrinks  up  and  re- 
mains on  the  vine  for 
a  period  as  late  as 
winter.  On  the  leaves 
the  spots  are  reddish 
brown  dispersed  be- 
tween the  veins.  The  disease  is  detected  here  some  days 
before  the  attack  is  made  on  the  fruit. 

Since  the  fungus  makes  its  appearance  so  late  in  the 
season  after  the  fruit  is  well  advanced,  it  becomes  rather 
a  difficult  problem  to  destroy  the  disease  if  the  spraying 
is  postponed,  without  staining  the  grapes.     It  is,  there- 


Fig.  62— Laestadia  huhnW  ( Ell  ).  Via  &  Rav. 
Div.  Botany,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 


L64 


GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 


fore,  important  that  early  applications  of  Bordeaux 
mixture  be  made,  and  as  thoroughly  as  possible — begin- 
ning before  the  blossoms  open,  and  repeating  the  spray- 
ing three  or  four  times,  with  a  week  or  ten  days  inter- 
vening between  each  application,  care  being  taken  not  to 
extend  the  spraying  until  the  fruit  is  stained. 

Monilia  fnwtigena  (Pers.).     The    rot    of    peach,    plum, 
quince,  and  cherry.   *"  The  fungus  makes  its  appearance 


Fig.  63— Monilia  frudigena.     Geneva,  N.  Y„  Bulletin  86. 

on  the  flowers  soon  after  or  about  the  time  the  petals 
fall.  At  first  a  slight  discoloration  appears  at  a  given 
point;  this  rapidly  increases  in  size  until  at  length  the 
entire  flower  assumes  a  brownish  hue. 

"After  killing  the  flower  the  fungus  frequently  attacks 
the  pedicels,  where  it  produces  similar  discolorations  to 
those  described  above.  The  dead  flowers  usually  remain 
on  the  tree  for  three  or  four  weeks,  then  if  the  weather  is 
wet  they  begin  falling,  and  as  they  consist  at  this  time 
of  a  soft  mass  of  rotten  tissue  they  stick  to  any  part  of 

*B.  T.  Galloway,  Sec.  Veg.  Path.  Report,  Department  Agriculture,  1888. 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC.  165 

the  tree  with  which  they  come  in  contact;  many  fall  upon 
the  leaves  and  young  fruit  and  become  so  firmly  attached 
that  no  ordinary  rain  or  wind  will  remove  them.  Careful 
experiments  have  shown  that  the  rotting  flowers  are 
highly  infectious,  and  that  wherever  they  touch  the 
leaves  or  fruit  decay  sets  in.. 

"  On  the  leaves  the  presence  of  the  fungus  is  first  made 
manifest  by  a  slight  discoloration  of  the  tissue  around 
the  point  of  infection;  this  gradually  enlarges,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  normal  healthy  green  color  changes  to  a 
reddish-brown.  .  .  During  wet  weather  the  spots  on 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  are  frequently  studded  with 
little  tufts  of  fungus;  these  have  a  mealy  or  pulverulent 
appearance,  and  are  easily  washed  off  by  the  rains  or 
removed  by  the  wind. 

"As  in  the  case  of  the  leaves,  the  fruit  is  often  infected 
by  means  of  the  diseased  flowers.  At  first  there  appears 
a  brownish  circular  spot  on  one  side  of  the  cherry;  this 
rapidly  enlarges  and  soon  the  entire  fruit  becomes  brown, 
shrunken,  and  soft.  Ultimately  the  fruit  stalk  is  attacked 
aud  finally  the  whole  either  falls  to  the  ground  and  dries 
up,  or  remains  hanging  on  the  tree  throughout  the  sum- 
mer, or  uutil  the  following  spring.  The  fruit  is  often 
covered  with  tufts  of  the  fungus  similar  to  those  occur- 
ring upon  the  leaves,  and  while  in  this  condition  they 
are  highly  infectious,  causing  all  the  fruit  with  which 
they  come  in  contact  to  rot." 

The  remedy  recommended  is  spraying  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  just  before  the  blossoms  open,  again  just  after 
the  blossoms  fall,  and  about  ten  days  after  with  another 
spraying  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture.  Some  doubt  the 
entire  efficiency  of  spraying,  and  its  advisability  is  an 
open  question.  Precaution  must  be  exercised  in  its  use, 
particularly  with  the  peach,  which  is  so  liable  to  inuiry 
from  the  chemicals. 


3  6G 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Alternaria  Solani  (E.  and  M.)  Sor.     Early  or  leaf  blight 
of  the  potato.     This  disease  is  readily  recognized  by  the 


Fig.  64 


Leaf  Carl  of  Tomato  { Atkinson).     Cornell  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin. 


peculiar  folding  of  the  edges  of  the  leaves,  resulting  from 
the  shrinking  of  the  tissue  after  the  attack  of  the  fungus 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,   PLANT   DISEASES,   ETC.  167 

has  destroyed  the  vitality  of  the  cells.  The  attack  begins 
with  a  small  spot,  which  gradually  enlarges  until  most  of 
the  leaf  surface  is  involved,  and,  unless  the  disease  is 
checked,  the  entire  plant  is  so  injured  its  power  to  pro- 
duce tubers  is  destroyed. 

The  remedy  for  this  disease  is  Bordeaux  mixture 
sprayed  on  the  plants  just  after  they  are  six  inches  high, 
and  continued  at  intervals  of  twro  weeks  until  June  1st. 

Oedema.  Leaf  curl  of  the  tomato.  The  disease  is  mani- 
fested by  the  rolling  up  of  the  leaves  exposing  the  under 
surfaces.  The  veins  are  very  much  swollen,  and  the 
leaves  become  more  or  less  brittle.  The  illustration  of 
this  disease  is  copied  from  Bulletin  53  of  the  Cornell 
Station  by  Professor  G.  F.  Atkinson.  The  attack  is  made 
on  the  older  leaves  first,  and  the  plant  dies  from  the  base 
upwards. 

Experience  has  shown  that  the  disease  is  caused  fre- 
quently by  an  excess  of  water  in  the  soil,  or  by  a  too 
liberal  use  of  ammoniacal  fertilizers,  so  that  irrigation 
will  help  to  retard  the  disease  and  judicious  application 
of  fertilizers  will  prevent  too  vigorous  growth  of  soft 
tissue,  which  seems  to  be  subject  to  the  disease. 

Oospora  scabies.  Potato  scab.  A  delicate  white  mold 
first  makes  its  appearance  on  the  surface  of  the  potato 
(Irish),  and  the  scab  is  developed  by  the  tissues  of  the 
tuber,  at  the  point  of  attack,  forming  a  layer  of  cork  as 
a  protection  against  the  fungus  parasite.  As  the  potato 
grows  this  diseased  place  begins  to  crack  and  becomes 
roughened.  Very  soon  the  entire  hill  of  tubers  becomes 
infected. 

The  remedy  is  preventive  rather  than  curative.  A 
large  per  cent,  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil  seems  to  en- 
courage the  development  of  the  disease,  and  where  lime 
and  stable  manure  are  used  in  large  quantities  there  is 
danger  of   having   this   parasite    on    the    crop.     Scabby 


168  GAKDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

potatoes  must  not  be  planted,  because  this  will  infect 
the  soil  and  give  trouble.  Stable  manure  secured  from 
animals  fed  on  potatoes  and  beets  is  liable  to  produce 
the  disease,  dotation  must  be  practiced  and  clean  cul- 
ture must  be  the  rule. 

Peach  yellows ;  Peach  rosette.  These  two  diseases  are  not 
yet  well  understood.  The  cause  is  unknown,  but  the  effects 
have  been  carefully  examined  by  pathologists,  and  the 
diseases  have  been  pronounced  virulently  contagious. 
The  yellows  have  not   been   located   positively  farther 


Fig.  65— Oosj  ora  scabies.     Cornell  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  113. 

south  than  Virginia,  but  there  is  constant  danger  of  its 
introduction  at  any  time  by  means  of  the  diseased  stock 
brought  from  the  infected  districts.  Peach  yellows 
manifests  its  presence  by  the  premature  ripening  of  the 
fruit,  with  bright  red  blotches  over  the  skin  and  into  the 
flesh,  penetrating  almost  to  the  center  of  the  peach,  pro- 
ducing an  unnatural  coloring.  There  is  also  a  premature 
unfolding  of  the  leaf  buds  into  pale,  sickly  growths, 
giving  the  tree  an  unhealthy  look.  The  fruit  has  a  bitter, 
unpleasant  taste.     The  tree  gradually  succumbs  to  the 


LNSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC.  169 

attack,  and  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  years  will  die 
entirely. 

The  rosette  is  somewhat  similar  to  yellows  in  its 
methods  of  attack,  but  it  is  more  decided  in  its  appear- 
ance. "  It  may  first  attack  part  of  a  tree  and  then  the 
remainder,  the  same  as  yellows,  but  it  is  more  likely  to 
appear  at  once  in  the  whole  tree,  and  generally  in  early 
spring.  In  trees  attacked  in  this  manner  all  of  the  leaf 
buds  grow  into  compact  tufts  or  rosettes.  These  rosettes, 
although  seldom  more  than  two  or  three  inches  long, 
usually  contain  several  hundred  small  leaves.  A  tree 
thus  attacked  always  dies  the  following  autumn  or  win- 
ter. The  prevailing  color  of  the  foliage  is  yellowish  green 
or  olivaceous."  (Erwin  F.  Smith  in  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  17.) 

The  only  sure  remedy  is  to  dig  up  the  infected  trees 
and  carefully  burn  them,  otherwise  the  disease  will  soon 
spread  throughout  the  entire  orchard. 

Plowrightia  morbosa  (Sacc).  The  black  knot  of  the  plum. 
This  is  an  excrescence  growing  upon  the  bark  and  young 
wood.  The  bark  swells  and  bursts,  and  finally  assumes 
the  appearance  of  a  large,  irregular  lump,  with  a  hard, 
cracked,  uneven  surface.  The  flow  of  sap  is  obstructed 
by  this  tumor,  and  the  poison  is  gradually  disseminated 
over  the  whole  tree.  The  Morello  cherry  is  also  subject 
to  the  attacks  of  this  disease.  It  made  its  appearance  in 
Athens,  Georgia,  for  the  first  time  in  the  year  1853  on  a 
tree  from  the  North.  The  black,  rough  condition  of  the 
knot  is  its  last  stage.  When  the  tree  is  first  infected  the 
trouble  is  not  so  clear  to  the  ordinary  observer,  and  the 
disease  obtains  a  strong  foothold  before  one  is  aware  of 
its  presence.  The  development  is  accomplished  in  the 
following  manner.  If  an  examination  is  made  of  the 
surface  of  one  of  the  black  knots  small  pimples  will  be 
detected   in   which   the   spores,    or   so-called   seeds,  are 


170  GARDENING    FOK    THE    SOUTH. 

located.  These  spores  are  carried  by  the  wind  to  other 
trees,  and,  finding  lodgement,  soon  germinate  and  send 
mycelii  into  the  tissues  of  the  plum,  where  growth  is 


Fig.  66 — Plowrightia  morbosa  (Sacc),     Mass.  (State) 
Exp.  Station,  Report  1892.     J.  E.  Humphray. 

continued  until  spring,  when  the  presence  of  the  disease 
is  manifested. 

The  only  remedy  is  to  cut  off  every  branch  or  twig  that 
shows  a  tumor,  and  burn  it  at  once;  and  be  sure  to  cut 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT   DISEASES,   ETC.  171 

several  inches  below  the  point  of  attack,  so  that  all 
mycelii  will  be  taken  out,  otherwise  the  trouble  will 
make  its  appearance  again. 

Phytophthora  infestans  (DeBary).  Potato  rot;  late  blight, 
or  downy  mildew.  The  leaves  turn  a  brown  color  in  large, 
irregular  spots,  the  unattacked  portions  of  the  leaves 
remaining  green.  The  tubers  are  also  destroyed  by  this 
disease,  and  become  a  dark  color,  shrivelling  up  and, 
where  the  attack  is  rapid,  giving  out  considerable  moist- 
ure in  the  rotten  portions. 

The  remedy  is  to  spray  the  vines  several  times  with  the 
Bordeaux  mixture,  beginning  when  the  plants  are  only 
a  few  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  repeat- 
ing at  intervals  of  two  weeks. 

Blight  of  the  Orange.*  Wilt  or  leaf  curl.  This  is  a 
common  disease  in  Florida,  and  it  is  considered  to  be 
incurable.  It  attacks  most  of  the  citrus  fruits;  but  it 
does  not  generally  make  its  appearance  until  the  tree  is 
old  enough  to  bear  fruit.  It  is  a  peculiar  disease  found 
only  in  Florida,  and  it  is  widely  distributed  over  the 
State.  The  blight  conies  rather  suddenly,  and  its  pres- 
ence is  at  first  manifested  by  the  wilting  of  the  leaves, 
followed  by  their  falling,  until  the  branches  are  denuded 
of  foliage. 

Inasmuch  as  there  is  no  remedy  for  this  disease,  the 
tree  affected  must  be  cut  out  at  once  and  destroyed,  be- 
cause the  healthy  trees" in  the  grove  will  soon  become 
infected,  and  the  entire  orchard  will  die.  It  is  useless  to 
treat  blighted  trees,  and  money  and  time  will  bo  wasted 
by  adopting  any  remedy  recommended;  the  only  sure 
method  is  the  heroic  one  of  cutting  out  and  burning  all 
trees  affected. 


♦Bulletin  8,  Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathology,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri 


1  i  2  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Die  Back  (Exanthema)*  This  disease  is  also  known 
only  in  Florida,  and  is  widely  distributed  over  the  State. 
As  the  name  implies,  the  disease  causes  the  vigorous 
new  growth  to  die  back  in  early  spring,  and  the  yield  of 
fruit  is  consequently  reduced. 

"  The  order  in  which  the  symptoms  appear  and  their 
severity  vary  greatly,  but  are  generally  as  follows:  The 
first  sign  of  the  disease  is  the  unusually  dark-green  color 
of  the  foliage,  rank  growth  and  large,  thick-skinned  fruit. 
These  symptoms  are  soon  followed  by  the  staining  and 
dying  back  of  a  few  twigs,  and  by  brown  stains  formed  on 
some  of  the  fruits.  The  fruits  developed  are  prone  to 
split  and  drop  prematurely.  In  the  first  stage  of  the 
disease  either  the  stained  fruit,  or  the  stained,  dying  twigs 
must  be  present  to  determine  with  certainty  the  presence 
of  the  malady.  Trees  affected  with  the  disease  may  grow 
for  years  and  show  only  one  of  these  character  symptoms; 
in  other  cases  all  symptoms  may  be  present,  but  to  a  very 
slight  extent,  so  that  careful  search  must  be  made  to  find 
them.  As  the  disease  progresses  the  brown  staining  of  the 
fruit  and  twigs  become  very  abundant,  and  the  dying  back 
of  the  twigs  occur  all  over  the  tree;  eruptions  form  on  the 
young  and  old  twigs;  nodal  swellings,  due  to  the  gum 
pockets,  become  very  abundant,  and  the  tree  assumes 
the  dense  foliage  and  regular  outline  described  above. 
In  this  stage  of  the  disease  many  fruits  set,  but  they 
usually  turn  yellow,  become  stained,  split  and  fall  before 
maturity,  only  a  few,  if  an}^  reaching  full  size.  Soon 
the  gum  eruptions  extend  to  the  old  limbs  and  these  die 
back.  The  rank  growth  becomes  limited  to  the  center 
of  the  tree;  here  branches  grow  luxuriantly  for  a  time, 
only  to  become  stained  and  die  back  later.'' 

Treatment. — Reducing  the  amount  of  highly  nitro- 


:Bulletin  8.  Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathology,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISK  ASKS,     ETC.  173 

genous  organic  fertilizers,  and  allowing  the  land  to  grow 
up  in  weeds,  will  sometimes  remedy  the  evil.  In  renew- 
ing the  fertilizing  materials  use  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid,  and,  as  the  tree  begins  to  recover,  add  a  little  nitrate 
of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia  until  the  tree  is  brought 
to  its  normal  condition  again.  Low,  wet  soils  will  also 
produce  this  disease,  and  in  that  case,  thorough  drainage 
must  be  resorted  to. 

Scab  of  the  Lemon  {Verrucosis)*  The  leaves  affected 
with  this  disease  exhibit  small,  wart-like  excrescences 
of  various  sizes;  in  some  cases  running  together  and 
covering  a  large  portion  of  the  leaf  or  fruit.  At  first  these 
warts  look  like  small  semi-transparent  pimples  of  a 
slightly  lighter  shade  of  green  than  the  surrounding  sur- 
face. In  a  few  days  these  warts  assume  a  more  prominent 
form,  and  present  a  watery  cast.  Then  a  fungus  makes 
its  appearance,  which  is  at  first  gray,  then  dusky,  and 
at  last  black.  Finally  the  tissue  covering  the  tips  of  the 
warts  is  cut  off  from  the  healthy  tissue  below  by  the  for- 
mation of  cork,  and  ultimately  this  cork  formation  be- 
comes so  abundant  as  to  give  a  dingy  white  color  to  the 
old  warts. 

Treatment. — Proper  application  of  ammoniacal  solu- 
tion of  copper  carbonate  will  be  found  efficient.  Remove 
all  infected  fruit  from  the  tree  and  the  ground  before 
the  blooming  begins.  Destroy  all  sour  orange  trees  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  lemon  trees,  because  these  are  very 
susceptible  to  the  disease,  and  will  give  trouble.  Spray 
with  the  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  carbonate  first 
when  the  fruit  begins  to  appear;  spray  a  second  time  two 
weeks  after;  and  a  third  spraying  may  be  required  two  or 
three  weeks  later,  when  the  blooming  season  is  over. 

The  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  carbonate  is  made 


*Bulletin  8,  Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathology,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 


174 


GAEDESIKG    FOK    THE    SOUTH. 


by  taking  5  ounces  of  copper  carbonate  and  mixing  with  1 
pint  of  water  to  a  thick  paste;  dilute  with  V/2  gallons 
of  water  in  a  wooden  bucket;  stir  vigorously,  and  at  the 
same  time  add  2  pints  of  strong  ammonia,  or  5%  pints  of 
ammonia  water;  when  dissolved  dilute  to  50  gallons  by 
the  addition  of  water. 


SPRAYING  APPARATUS  AND  METHODS. 

No  garden  or  orchard  is  well  equipped  without  the 
apparatus  necessary  to  combat  the  attacks  of  insects  and 


Fig.  67— Victor  Spraying  Machine. 

fungi.  The  experiment  stations  have  studied  so  carefully 
and  thoroughly  the  subject  of  spraying  and  its  appliances, 
and  have  published,  within  the  past  ten  years,  so  many 
bulletins  containing  hundreds  of  pages  of  valuable  ad- 
vice to  those  contemplating,  spraying,  that  the  practice 
has  become  almost  as  universal  among  fruit  growers  and 
market  gardeners  as  is  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers 


IXSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLAXT    DISEASES,    ETC. 


175 


among-  iariners.  In  the  preparation  of  this  chapter  very 
liberal  use  has  been  made  of  these  bulletins,  and  the 
reader  is  advised  to  secure  these  publications  if  fuller 
information  is  desired  on  any  point  not  elaborated  in  this 
book.  In  fact,  the  wise  gardener  will  have  his  name  en- 
tered on  the  mailing  lists  of  these  stations  so  that  all 
bulletins  relating  to  vegetables  and  their  cultivation  may 
be  sent  him.  These  bulletins  are  sent  free  to  any  one 
who  will  apply  for  them. 

There  are  numerous  spraying  pumps  and  appliances 


& 


h-< 

>-** 

*~i 

►4 

& 

crt- 

PS 

1-3 
CD 

Fig.  68— Barrel  Truck  for  Spraying. 


on  the  market,  some  of  which  are  cheap  and  others  are 
quite  expensive.  In  the  purchase  of  an  outfit,  however, 
the  following  essentials  must  be  carefully  noted  and  in- 
sisted upon,  if  effective  and  satisfactory  service  is  to  be 
secured:  1.  Durability;  2.  Capacity  for  work  contemplated; 
3.  Simplicity  in  construction;   4.  Ease    with    which   the 


176 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


parts  may  be  reached  and  separated  for  repair;  5.  Effi- 
ciency of  agitator;  6.  Non-corrosive  parts  which  are 
brought  in  contact  with  the  liquids. 


Fig.  69— Bellows.     Large  Single  Cone. 

Experiments  have  proven  that  the  following  apparatus 
will  meet  most  of  these  requisites: 

One  of  the  simplest  forms  for  applying  dry  powders  is 
shown  in  Figure  69.  The  powder  is  placed  in  the  cone- 
shaped  vessel,  at  the  bottom  of  which  is  an  orifice,  and 


Fig.  70 — The  Leggett  Powder  Gun. 

through  this  the  powder  can  sift,  and,  by  working  the 
bellows,  the  poison  is  forced  out  over  the  plants.  Another 
form  is  shown  in  Figure  70,  known  as  Leggett's  powder 
gun.    The  reservoir  containing  the  insecticides  is  located 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC. 


177 


near  the  middle  of  the  gun,  and  by  turning  a  crank  a  fan 
is  operated  which  blows  the  powder  out  through  the  tube 
on  the  plant  where  desired.  The  reservoir  contains  about 
one  quart,  and  the  holes  in  the  base  are  adjustable,  so 
that  any  amount  of  powder  may  be  sent  out  at  any  time 
desired. 

Knapsack  sprayers  are  made  to  hold  about  five  gallons 


Fig.  71— Knapsack  Sprayer. 


of  the  spraying  materials,  and  the  apparatus  is  so  con- 
structed as  to  enable  the  manipulator  to  carry  the 
machine  on  his  shoulders.  The  discharge  pipe  should 
enter  the  top  of  the  tank,  and  not  at  the  bottom.  Where 
the  pipe  enters  the  bottom  it  frequently  becomes  clogged 
with  the  mixtures,  thus  producing  continual  sources  of 
annoyance.     The  valves  are  supplied  with  rubber  balls, 

12 


ITS 


GARDENING    FOK    THE    SOUTH. 


which  should  be  substituted  with  marbles  when  kerosene 
emulsion  is  used,  because  the  kerosene  causes  rubber  to 
swell  and  close  the  orifice.  Figure  71  gives  the  general 
form  of  these  knapsack  sprayers. 

When  a  considerable  area  of  the  garden  or  orchard  is 


Cyclone  Nozzle,  with  Direct 

Charge  and  Diegorger 

for  Thin  Sprays. 


Cyclone  Nozzle,  with 
Lateral   Discharge 
for  Thin  Sprays. 


Wire  Extended  Suction 


Heavy  Cyclone  Nozzle,  with 

Oblique  Discharge  for 

Thick  Sprays. 

The  above  illustrations  are  from  Bulletin  No.  20,  Division 
of  Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathology. 

Pig.  72-VERMOREL  NOZZLES. 

to  be  treated  it  becomes  necessary  to  use  larger  machines 
for  holding  the  spraying  materials.  The  best  patterns 
have  the  force  pump  attached  to. barrels,  as  is  shown  in 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC.  179 

These  machines  are  so  constructed 
that  as  the  pumping  is  carried  on  the  fluids  are  kept  in 
constant  motion,  insuring  a  more  perfect  mixture  of  the 
ingredients. 

The  nozzle  used  in  the  working  of  these  spraying 
machines  is  a  very  important  item.  The  best  nozzle  is 
the  one  which  sends  out  a  fine  spray  over  all  portions  of 
the  plant.  It  is  not  desirable  to  drench  the  tree  until  the 
liquid  runs  off  on  the  ground,  but  every  part  must  be  well 
covered  where  there  are  indications  of  fungi  or  attacks 
from  insects.  The  Vermorel  nozzle  is  considered  to  be 
one  of  the  best  on  the  market.  However,  it  throws  the 
fine  spray  but  a  few  feet  from  the  orifice,  and  this  is  a 


Fig.  73— McGowan's  Nozzle. 


disadvantage  where  tall  trees  are  to  be  treated.  This  diffi- 
culty may  be  obviated  by  using  a  bamboo  extension. 
This  is  a  bamboo  cane  in  which  is  placed  a  %-inch  brass 
tube  with  couplings  to  enable  the  manipulator  to  attach 
it  to  the  nozzle,  and  to  the  tank  containing  the  spraying- 
materials. 

The  McGowan  nozzle  is  considered  by  many  gardeners 
to  possess  the  advantage  over  the  Vermorel  form  in  the 
fact  that  it  not  only  sends  out  a  fine  spray,  but  it  is 
thrown  with  such  force  as  to  reach  the  highest  trees  in 
the  orchard.  In  this  respect  it  has  its  advantages.  It  is 
generally  conceded,  however,  that  for  short  distances  the 
Vermorel  is  the  best  sprayer,  particularly  for  knapsack 
work.   It  is  good  policy,  where  the  gardener  can  afford  it, 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT   DISEASES,    ETC. 


181 


to  keep  both  patterns  on  band,  so  that  any  character  of 
work  in  the  spraying  line  needed  in  the  garden  and 
orchard  may  be  carried  on  with  the  least  delay  and 
trouble. 

In  the  use  of  the  spraying  material  judgment  must  be 
exercised.  Of  course,  one  solution  will  not  do  for  all 
purposes,  and  the  gardener  must  hrst  determine  what 
character  of  disease  the  plant  has  before  making  the 


Fig.  74— Just  right  to  spray  for  Codling  Moth.     Cornell  Exp. 
Station  Bulletin  142. 


application  of  the  remedy,  otherwise  his  labor  may  be 
thrown  away.  As  a  general  guide  in  this  matter,  the 
following  rules  are  given: 

1.  Do  not  spray  the  plants  while  in  bloom,  because  the 
delicate  organs  may  be  injured;  insects  which  are  bene- 
ficial, such  as  bees,  etc.,  may  be  destroyed. 

2.  There  are  a  number  of  different  formulae  recom- 
mended by  writers  on  the  subject  of  spraying,  but  the 
experience  of  our  best  horticulturists  and  gardeners  has 


182 


GARDENING     FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


reduced  them  to  two  fungicides,  viz.:  Bordeaux  mixture 
and  ammoniacal  carbonate  of  copper,  and  two  insecti- 
cides, viz.:  Paris  green  for  chewing  insects  and  kerosene 
emulsion  for  those  insects  which  feed  by  sucking.  In 
the  calendar  given  at  the  end  of  this  chapter  other  formu- 
lae are  given  which  may  be  relied  on,  but,  as  has  been 
already  said,  the  four  mentioned  above  will  be  found  suffi- 
cient for  nearly  all  cases. 

3.  The  lime  solution  and  the  sulphate  of  copper  should 
be  passed  through  a  fine  strainer  and  the  former  (milk 


Fig.  75— Almost  too  late  to  spray.   Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  142. 


of  lime)  must  be  cold  before  mixing  with  the  copper  solu- 
tion, otherwise  the  blue  color  characteristic  of  the  Bor- 
deaux may  not  be  secured. 

4.  Unless  the  spraying  is  well  performed  the  labor  will 
be  lost.  Be  sure  that  all  portions  of  the  plant  diseased 
are  reached  with  the  preparation,  because  if  a  small  sur- 
face is  omitted  an  active  center  of  disease  may  continue 
its  growth,  and  in  a  short  time  the  plant  will  be  in  a  bad 
plight. 


II 


-  9 


•<< 


in 

•o 

s 

«< 
5' 

(TO 

C 

3 

■D 


184 


GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 


5.  Before  any  application  of  the  spraying  solution  is 
made  a  careful  examination  of  the  plants  must  be  made 
to  determine,  as  far  as  possible,  what  is  the  character  of 


calendar  at  the  end  of  this  chapter  will  largely  assist  the 
operator  in  determining  this  question  of  suitable  spray- 


Fig.  78— The  Kerowater. 

ing  mixture  as  soon  as  the  character  of  the  disease  is 
known.  For  instance,  "  it  would  be  useless  to  spray  with 
kerosene  emulsion  to  repress  mildew,  to  combat  currant 
worms  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  or  to  apply  Paris  green 
for  an  attack  of  plant  lice.''   (Geneva  Exp.  Station.) 

6.  Some  of  these  mixtures  are  poisonous,  and  greal 
care  must  be  exercised  in  their  use  so  as  to  prevent 
serious  accidents.     Another  point  must  be  remembered, 


INSECTS,    FUNGI,    PLANT    DISEASES,    ETC.  185 

viz.:  that  these  fungicides  and  insecticides  are  not  cura- 
tives of  the  disease,  but  are  simply  preventatives,  so  the 
spraying  must  be  done  at  the  proper  times  in  order  to 
reach  the  cause  of  the  trouble  before  it  is  too  deeply 
rooted  in  the  tissues  of  the  plant.  Secure  the  best  labor 
for  this  work,  and  use  the  best  machines  procurable. 

The  Kerowater. — The  demand  for  a  sprayer  that  will 
unite  the  kerosene  oil  and  water  when  needed,  and  at 
the  moment  that  the  two  come  from  the  machine,  has 
induced  the  Gould  Manufacturing  Company  of  Seneca 
Falls,  New  York,  to  devise  the  "  Kerowater,"  which  in 
many  respects  is  a  handy  and  convenient  sprayer.  The 
kerosene  oil  is  placed  in  the  oil  tank  located  within  the 
barrel,  which  is  clearly  indicated  in  the  figure.  The  water 
is  placed  in  the  barrel.  Each  tank  has  its  own  pump,  and 
the  two  fluids  do  not  come  together  until  they  reach  the 
discharge  pipe,  and  the  proportion  of  kerosene  oil  is  main- 
tained at  the  will  of  the  operator.  The  use  of  this  and 
similar  machines  obviates  the  necessity  of  preparing  the 
emulsion  beforehand. 


186  GAKDEMKG    FOIt    THE    SOUTH. 

CHAPTER    IX. 

PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 

There  are  (wo  modes  of  propagating  plants,  viz.:  by 
seed  and  by  division.  Species  are  propagated  by  seed,  but 
varieties,  except  in  the  case  of  annuals,  generally  by 
division,  as  they  do  not  always  continue  true  from  seed. 
There  are  also  two  modes  of  propagating  by  division;  in 
the  one,  the  plants  root  in  the  ground  as  suckers,  layers, 
and  cuttings,  and  in  the  other  they  are  made  to  unite  with 
another  plant,  as  in  budding,  grafting,  and  inarching. 
While  all  plants  are  naturally  multiplied  by  seed,  most 
kinds  also  allow  of  propagation  by  division,  as  by  taking- 
offsets,  or  parting  their  roots,  by  suckers,  cuttings,  run- 
ners, layers,  etc.  Propagation  by  seed  often  produces 
new  varieties,  which  are  only  to  be  perpetuated  by 
division  of  their  roots,  cuttings,  layers,  or  by  budding  and 
grafting  upon  stocks. 

Propagation  by  Seed. — The  most  healthy  and  vigor- 
ous plants  are  generally  produced  by  seed,  though  many 
varieties  can  only  be  perpetuated  by  propagating  by 
division.  The  following  conditions  are  necessary,  says 
Thompson,  for  successful  propagation  by  seed:  1.  That 
the  seeds  be  perfectly  ripened.  2.  That  they  have  been 
properly  kept  until  the  period  of  sowing.  3.  That  they  be 
sown  at  the  proper  time;  and,  finally,  that  the  sowing  be 
performed  in  the  proper  manner.  And  it  may  be  added 
that  to  accomplish  the  object  of  sowing,  the  seeds  sown 
must  be  of  just  the  kind  intended  to  be  used,  and  true  to 
that  kind. 

The  Maturity  and  Soundness  of  Seeds  are  neces- 
sary to  ensure  the  growth  and  perfection  of  the  young 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  187 

plant.  These  can  generally  be  determined  by  their 
external  and  internal  appearance.  If  in  cutting  the 
larger  seeds  the  substance  of  the  seed  be  of  the  natural 
color,  and  the  embryo  be  fresh  and  perfect,  it  will  prob- 
ably germinate.  So  if  externally  the}'  have  a  clear  color 
and  a  fresh,  plump  appearance,  they  will  be  likely  to 
grow.  The  soundness  of  those  that  sink  in  water  when 
good  (and  most  seeds  do),  may  be  tested  by  putting  them 
in  warm  water.  Nearly  all  sound  seeds  will  sink  in  this 
fluid  in  a  short  time.  Of  the  finer  seeds,  a  skillful  eye 
will  determine  the  quality  with  the  microscope.  But 
the  surest  test  is  planting  a  few  properly  in  a  pot,  pro- 
tecting the  surface  from  drying  with  a  square  of  glass, 
and  keeping  it  in  a  warm  room,  or  plunged  in  a  hot-bed 
or  in  a  pit,  giving  it  the  heat  naturally  required  by  the 
species  for  germination.  A  simple  seed  tester  can  be 
made  by  the  use  of  cheese  cloth,  on  which  the  seed  are 
spread,  covered  with  another  cloth  and  placed  on  moist 
sand,  the  whole  covered  with  a  board  slightly  raised  to 
permit  of  circulation  of  air. 

Seeds  are  more  often  unsound  from  mouldiness  or  age 
than  from  not  having  been  properly  ripened.  They  should 
be  stored  where  they  will  be  least  affected  by  the  pres- 
ence of  moisture  and  the  changes  of  temperature.  About 
40°,  but  not  lower,  is  said  to  be  the  best.  Many  oily  seeds 
become  rancid,  and  will  not  vegetate  when  sown. 

Generally,  seeds  should  be  kept  dry,  but  acorns  and 
chestnuts  thus  kept  soon  lose  their  vitality,  and  must  be 
kept  until  planted  in  rather  dry  loam,  or  slightly  damp- 
ened moss,  well  packed.  Nearly  all  seeds  keep  better  in 
closely  packed  dry  soil,  the  air  being  thus  mostly  ex- 
cluded, than  hermetically  sealed  in  bottles.  In  close 
stopped  bottles  or  jugs,  the  air  often  becomes  saturated 
with  the  moisture  and  exhalations  from  the  seeds,  which, 
in  the  impure,  damp,  close  atmosphere,  soon  become  com- 


188 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


pletely  spoiled.  But  peas,  beans,  and  other  seeds,  where 
liable  to  insects,  after  they  are  well  dried,  should  be  put 
in  bottles  well  corked,  and  a  few  drops  of  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, of  chloroform,  or  a  bit  of  camphor,  put  in  with 
the  seeds.  Either  of  these  is  fatal  to  the  insects.  For 
most  seeds  it  is  sufficient  that  they  be  gathered,  when 
fully  ripe,  in  dry  weather,  and  thoroughly  dried  before 
they  are  threshed.  If  any  moisture  then  appears,  dry 
them  further,  and  store  in  paper  bags  where  they  will 
be  free  from  damp  and  vermin.  In  the  first  column  of  the 
following  table  is  given  the  time  that  certain  seeds  will 
keep,  according  to  Vilmorin;  the  second  column  gives  the 
earlier  table  of  Cobbet.  It  is  generally  best  to  select 
fresh  seeds,  as  seeds  lose  their  vitality  very  soon. 


Years. 

Years. 

Years. 

Pennyroyal 

Potato  (Sweet).   . . 

Asparagus 

Balm 

.    ...  4—  4 

Endive  

.  a—  4 

2—3 

—  2 

.  —  3 

Basil 

...6—2 

<;—  2 

Fennel 

Garlick 

.  .5—  5 
.  —  3 

Bean   

Purslane 

8—  2 

"    (Kidney) 

3—  1 

(iourd 

..5—10 

Radish . 

5—  2 

Beet 

5—10 

Hop   

.  .   —  2 

Rampion 

5—2 

Borage 

3—4 

..  —  4 

—  4 

Broccoli 

5—4 

Hyssop   

.  —  6 

Rhubarb 

3—  1 

Burnet 

2—6 

Jerusalem  Artichoke 

.  —  3 

Rosemary 

4-3 

Cabbage 

5—4 

Kale 

.5—  4 

Rue 

—  3 

5-7 

—  2 

4—  2 

"    (?ea) 

.3—  3 

.  .   —  2 
.2—  2 

Rutabaga  

...5—4 

Lavender 

Leek 

.    .  —  3 

Capsicum 

Salsify  

Samphire 

2—  2 

Caraway 

...  2—  4 

Lentil 

..  —  3 

...    .  —  3 

Carrot  

....   4-1 

Lettuce 

.  5—  3 

Savory 

3-2 

Celery 

-10 

Marjoram 

.2—  4 

Shalot 

—  4 

Chervil 

2—6 

Marigold 

..  —  3 

Skirret 

2—4 

Cives 

2-3 

Melon 

..5—10 

Sorrel 

2—7 

Corn   

....    •-'—  3 

Mint 

.     —  4 

Spinach 

5—  4 

Corn-Salad   

5—2 

Mustard 

5-  4 

Squash 

5—10 

Coriander 

• —  3 

Nasturtium 

.5—  2 

Tansy 

..    ..  —  8 

Cress 

5—3 

Okra 

—   1 

Tarragon 

—  4 

"     (Winter).... 

3— 

Onion 

.   2—  2 

Thyme 

2—2 

"    (Water) 

4— 

Parsley 

3-  6 

Tomato     

5-2 

Cucumber 

5-10 

Parsnip  

2-  1 

Turnip   

...  .5—  4 

Dandelion 

—10 

Pea  (English)  

.4—  1 

Wormwood 

—  2 

The  Time  of  Sowing  all  indigenous  seeds  in  any 
locality  is  most  favorable  when  they  naturally  fall  from 
the  plants.  Hardy  annuals,  likewise,  do  much  better  if 
sown  in  autumn,  or  quite  early  in  the  spring.  If  not  in 
the  ground  early,  they  flower  late  and  badly.  There  are 
some  exceptions,  as  in  the  case  of  haws  and  cedar  berries, 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  189 

which  hang  until  swallowed  by  birds,  and  sprout  more 
freely  after  having  undergone  the  digestive  process. 
Some  exotics  of  a  hardy  character  likewise  succeed  best 
when  sown  at  the  time  the  seed  falls,  vegetating  in 
autumn,  growing  slowly  through  the  colder  months,  and 
progressing  rapidly  when  spring  opens.  Others  coming 
from  a  different  climate,  starting  into  growth  in  autumn, 
would  perish  during  the  winter  months;  but  kept  and 
sown  when  the  temperature  of  the  air  and  soil  in  spring 
is  suitable  for  vegetating  them,  they  will  advance  rapidly 
as  the  weather  becomes  more  and  more  favorable  to 
growth.  In  some  cases,  where  it  might  be  best  to  sow 
at  the  natural  period,  if  the  aim  was  simply  to  continue 
the  species,  other  motives  render  it  necessary  to  sow  at 
other  times.  A  succession  of  flowers  or  a  continued  sup- 
ply of  vegetables  during  the  season  may,  in  the  case  of 
annual  or  biennial  plants,  make  repeated  sowings  at 
proper  intervals  desirable. 

Trees  and  shrubs  it  is  well  to  sow,  if  practicable,  at  the 
natural  period,  but  it  is  desirable  that  the  seedlings  should 
not  make  their  appearance  above  ground  until  a  favor- 
able season  for  growth.  This  is  most  readily  secured  in  the 
case  of  seeds  that  do  not  keep  well  dry,  by  stratification 
or  mixing  them  with  soil  in  autumn,  but  not  encouraging 
growth  until  spring.  This  is  done  by  placing  a  layer 
of  seeds  upon  the  surface  of  the  soil,  then  a  layer  an  inch 
or  two  thick  of  sand  or  light  soil,  and  so  on,  the  whole 
being  laid  so  as  to  form  a  cone,  over  which  is  spread  a 
covering  of  soil  to  protect  from  wet  and  frost.  This  should 
be  done  where  least  likely  to  invite  the  attacks  of  mice 
and  other  animals.  Small  quantities  of  seeds  of  this  kind 
may  be  stratified  in  boxes  and  flower  pots,  covered  from 
rats  and  mice  and  placed  in  a  cool  situation  until  spring. 
Holly  seed  requires  to  be  kept  thus  two  years.  When 
vegetation  begins  to  take  place,  the  seeds,  still  mixed 


190  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

with  the  earth  iu  which  they  have  lain,  can  be  sown  in 
soil  properly  prepared.  The  larger  seeds  can  be  taken 
from  the  soil  and  planted  out  in  the  drills  at  proper 
distances. 

Seeds  Must  Be  Sown  in  the  Proper  Manner. — 
Seedsmen  are  often  blamed  for  selling  bad  seed,  when 
the  sole  fault  is  with  the  planter.  That  seed  may  germi- 
nate, moisture,  air,  and  a  certain  degree  of  warmth,  vary- 
ing with  each  variety,  are  necessary.  Chickweed  will 
vegetate  at  32°  F.,  but  for  most  seeds  of  plants  of  tem- 
perate climates  the  best  germinating  temperature  is 
about  00°  F.;  of  half-hardy  plants  70°  F.;  of  tropical 
plants  about  80°  F.;  but  some  require  100°  F. 

Light  must  also  be  excluded  until  the  root  can  derive 
nourishment  from  the  soil.  The  first  effect  of  air,  heat, 
and  moisture  upon  the  seed  is  to  change  its  starchy  mat- 
ter into  the  proper  food  of  the  embryo.  If  at  this  time 
the  seed  be  withered  by  exposure  to  heat  without  suffi- 
cient covering,  it  will  perish.  It  often  happens  that  seeds 
are  planted  in  a  fresh-dug  soil,  and  the  above  change  in 
the  properties  of  the  seed  takes  place,  but  the  earth  not 
being  pressed  upon  it,  the  seed  dries  up  and  the  embryo 
perishes.  Others,  again,  are  buried  too  deeply,  and 
though  the  seed  swells,  yet  sufficient  air  and  warmth  are 
not  obtained  to  give  the  embryo  life.  The  seed  should 
be  just  so  far  covered  as  to  exclude  light,  and  afford 
barely  sufficient  moisture  for  its  wrants.  The  first  thing 
in  sowing  is  a  suitable  preparation  of  the  soil,  so  that 
the  young  roots  thrown  out  may  easily  penetrate  it.  It 
must  be  made  more  or  less  fine  for  different  seeds.  Peas 
and  beans  do  not  require  the  soil  to  be  as  finely  pulverized 
as  small  seeds.  The  seeds  must  also  be  firmly  fixed  in  the 
soil,  and  pressed  by  the  earth  in  every  part,  in  order  to 
retain  moisture  sufficient  to  encourage  vegetation;  but 
they  should  not  be  so  deeply  buried  as  to  be  deprived  of 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  191 

air,  or  have  their  ascending  shoots  impeded  by  too  much 
soil  above.  In  all  cases,  seeds  should  be  sown  in  fresh- 
dug  soil,  that  they  may  have  the  benefit  of  the  moisture 
therein,  but  they  should  never  be  put  in  when  the  soil  is 
really  wet,  as  the  ground  will  bake  and  the  seed  perish. 
Moist  weather  in  summer  is  excellent  for  putting  in  seeds, 
provided  the  ground  is  still  friable.  Just  before  a  light 
rain  is  the  best  possible  time  for  sowing  turnips  and 
other  summer-sown  crops. 

Seeds  of  most  kinds  should  be  sown  in  drills  or  rows. 
In  these  they  can  be  placed  at  any  required  depth,  while 
if  broadcast,  some  will  be  uncovered,  and  others  too 
deeply  buried  in  the  earth.  If  sown  in  drills  you  will 
know  where  to  look  for  the  young  plants,  and  they  can 
have  the  soil  dug  around  them,  which  will  enable  them  to 
grow  much  faster,  and  are  much  more  easily  thinned  and 
cultivated.  When  the  seeds  are  planted,  the  earth  should 
generally  be  pressed  upon  them  with  a  roller,  by  treading 
with  the  feet,  in  the  case  of  large  seeds,  and  for  the 
smaller  by  smoothing  the  surface  with  the  back  of  a 
spade,  or  by  walking  over  them  on  a  board.  Pressing  the 
earth  upon  them  will  retain  the  moisture  about  them,  and 
hasten  their  vegetation.  When  they  come  up,  keep  them 
free  from  weeds,  and  thin  them  as  hereafter  directed  in 
treating  of  each  plant. 

A  great  deal  of  the  subsequent  growth  of  the  plant 
depends  upon  their  not  being  sown  too  thickly,  or  at  any 
rate  upon  being  thinned  properly  as  soon  as  the  young 
seedlings  appear.  A  plant  raised  among  a  lot  of  crowded 
seedlings  is  very  apt  to  die  before  it  has  made  its  fourth 
leaf.  This  seldom  happens  if  the  seeds  are  sown  thin,  and 
a  little  powdered  charcoal  is  mixed  with  the  earth. 

Some  seeds,  which,  like  those  of  the  carrot,  adhere 
together,  must  be  rubbed  in  the  hands  with  dry  sand  to 
insure  a  more  equal  distribution  in  the  drill.     Others, 


192  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

like  the  beet,  are  covered  with  a  bard  shell,  and  others 
still  with  a  tough  skin.  Both  kinds  may  be  soaked  in 
water  until  the  shell  or  skin  is  somewhat  softened,  and  by 
notching  into  the  covering  germination  is  hastened.  For 
broadcast  sowing,  very  small  seeds  are  often  mixed  with 
fine  soil  in  order  to  ensure  their  being  scattered  more 
equally. 

Very  often  seeds  fail  to  come  up  because  they  are  sown 
too  deep  or  because  they  are  sown  in  very  dry  earth. 
Other  causes  of  failure  are  excessive  moisture  and 
either  excess  or  lack  of  bottom  heat.  M.  Appelius 
observes  that  seedlings  raised  in  hot-beds  or  frames 
frequently  cause  disappointment  from  bad  management. 
Asters,  Stocks,  Phlox,  Petunias,  Pansies,  etc.,  do  better 
in  a  very  mild  hot-bed,  and  produce  stronger  plants 
less  likely  to  die  off.  When  the  dung  of  a  hot-bed  has 
given  off  its  first  heat,  it  begins  to  absorb  moisture 
from  the  earth  with  which  it  is  covered.  And  as 
the  earth  of  the  bed  generally  slopes  to  the  south,  the 
greater  part  of  the  water  given  off  runs  toward  the  front, 
and  at  the  back  of  the  bed  the  earth  in  which  the  seeds 
are  sown  is  often  too  dry.  Hence  seeds  that  vegetate 
slowly  and  need  constant  damp,  as  Phlox  and  Pansy, 
should  be  sown  at  the  front  of  the  bed,  and  those  that 
grow  more  readily  at  the  top  or  back.  The  time  required 
for  certain  seeds  to  germinate  at  a  temperature  of  from 
52°  to  65°  is  as  follows  (M.  Appelius):  Garden  cress,  2 
days;  spinach,  3;  cabbage,  turnip,  and  lettuce,  1;  peas, 
endive,  poppy,  melons,  cucumbers,  mustard,  5;  lupine, 
lentil,  horseradish,  radish,  onions  (often  also  in  15  days), 
leeks,  6;  barley,  rye,  maize,  broccoli,  beans,  beet,  7;  wheat, 
thyme,  marjoram,  and  some  kidney  beans,  8 ;  marrowfat 
peas,  9;  vetch,  sugar  beet,  tobacco,  hemp,  10;  tomato, 
sea-kale,  scorzonera,  carrots,  savory,  basil,  stocks,  celery, 
12  (turnip  rooted  celery  sometimes  20);  anise,  fennel,  13; 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  193 

sunflower,  artichoke,  burnet,  14;  balm,  clover,  15;  laven- 
der, purslane,  1G;  sage,  pepper,  20;  parsnip,  parsley, 
asparagus,  21;  and  potato  in  28  days.  It  seems  that  seeds 
lighter  than  water  do  not  germinate  so  soon  as  those 
heavier. 

Though  seeds  will  vegetate  with  due  supplies  of  heat 
and  moisture,  a  fertile  soil  is  necessary  for  their  further 
progress.  Fine,  light,  rich  mould  favors  the  vegetation 
and  early  progress  of  most  seeds,  though  many,  after  they 
are  a  little  advanced,  flourish  best  in  strong,  heavy  loam. 
A  compost  of  peat  or  leaf-mould,  fine  sand,  and  well  rot- 
ted manure,  should  be  prepared,  and  if  all  the  finer  seeds 
are  covered  therewith,  one  great  difficulty  in  growing- 
fine  vegetables  on  stiff  soils  will  be  removed,  as  well  as 
their  early  maturity  secured.  Even  in  dry  weather  one 
can  generally  bring  up  seeds  by  digging  and  finely  pul- 
verizing the  earth;  then  soaking  it  well  with  water  that 
has  been  some  time  exposed  to  the  air  to  raise  its  tem- 
perature; then  sowing  the  seed  in  drills  of  the  proper 
depth,  and  sifting  over  the  bed  a  coat  of  this  compost. 
In  the  case  of  large  seeds,  as  corn,  beans,  etc.,  after  the 
ground  is  prepared,  only  the  hills  or  drills  need  to  be  thus 
soaked,  and  then  covered  with  the  compost. 

Special  directions  for  managing  seeds  requiring 
peculiar  care  will  be  given  hereafter. 

But  the  best  management  will  be  of  no  avail  if  one  does 
not  get  the  right  seeds.  It  is  not  pleasant  to  see  Early 
Yorks  growing  where  one  sowed  what  he  bought  for 
Drumheads.  The  way  to  avoid  such  mistakes  is  either  to 
raise  your  own  seeds  and  carefully  label  them,  or  to  know 
of  whom  you  buy.  Your  own  eye  in  the  case  of  many 
seeds  will  not  assist  you  at  all  in  discriminating. 

Seed  must  not  only  be  of  the  right  sort,  but  true  to  that 
sort.  Early  York  cabbage  seed  may  be  sown,  or  Scarlet 
radish  seed;  yet,  from  having  been  planted  near  to  some 
13 


194  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

other  varieties,  the  seed  is  crossed  with  them  and  the 
most  valuable  qualities  of  the  variety  lost.  The  cabbage 
may  be  late  or  longrlegged,  and  not  head  at  all,  or  the 
radish  tough  and  misshapen. 

Preserving  Seed.— The  very  finest  plants  should  be 
chosen  for  this  purpose — that  is,  those  most  true  to  their 
kind  and  most  perfect  in  shape  and  quality.  In  the  cab- 
bage, for  instance,  a  small,  short  stem,  well  formed  head 
with  few  loose  leaves;  in  the  turnip,  large  bulb,  small 
neck,  few,  short  and  slender-stalked  leaves,  and  solid 
flesh.  In  the  radish,  high  color  (unless  white),  small  neck, 
few  and  short  leaves.  In  the  case  of  flowers,  seed  should 
be  saved  only  from  those  most  perfectly  developed. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  to  preserve  the  varieties 
unmixed,  for,  as  just  stated,  if  varieties  of  the  same  spe- 
cies, or  very  similar  species,  are  planted  near  each  other, 
they  will  cross  and  produce  untrue  seed.  In  this  way,  it 
is  true,  valuable  varieties  often  originate,  but  the  chances 
are  that  the  produce  will  be  worthless.  There  can  be  no 
cross  between  a  cabbage  and  a  carrot,  because  they  are 
of  totally  different  families,  and  there  is  no  similarity; 
but  all  the  varieties  of  cabbage  will  cross  with  each  other, 
wilh  Brussels  sprouts,  in  short  with  all  others  of  the 
genus  Brassica.  So  of  corn;  in  a  few  years  the  early  varie- 
ties from  the  North,  planted  in  Southern  gardens,  become 
so  intermingled  with  the  ordinary  sorts,  that  the  early 
character  is  lost.  The  difficulty  of  keeping  seeds  pure 
renders  it  advisable  not  to  save  seeds  of  two  varieties  of 
any  species  the  same  year,  except  in  large  gardens.  Many 
kinds  of  seed  it  is  more  advantageous  to  buy  of  the  regu- 
lar seedsmen  than  to  grow  ami  save  them  at  home.  The 
finest  seeds  in  the  world  are  grown  where  an  amateur 
makes  one  or  two  species  of  plants,  like  Truffaut  with 
Asters,  a  specialty,  using  every  possible  care  for  their 
improvement. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 


195 


Fig.  79— Flax  Flower. 


Crossing  and  Hybridizing. — These  terms  are  used  by 
many  as  meaning  the  same  thing;  strictly  speaking, 
hybridizing  is  when  two  distinct  species  are  made  to  form 
a  union,  while  crossing  is  where  the  same  takes  place  with 

varieties  of  the  same  spe- 
cies. To  make  the  matter 
plain,  we  must  give  the  struc- 
ture of  the  flower.  The  organs 
concerned  in  the  production 
of  the  fruit  or  seed  are  the 
stamens,  which  correspond  to 
the  male  organs,  and  the 
pistil  or  pistils,  which  are  the 
female  organs.  These  two  arc 
for  the  most  part  in  one 
flower,  and  differ  greatly  in  number  in  the  different  fami- 
lies. The  simplest  case  is  where  both  kinds  are  in  one 
flower,  as  in  Figure  79,  which  represents  a  flower  of  the 
flax  split  down,  to  show  the  arrangement  of  its  parts. 
The  central  body  is  the  pistil,  and  is  surrounded  by  five 
stamens,  which  are  shorter.  It  will  be  seen 
that  each  stamen  is  composed  of  two  parts — 
a  slender  portion,  the  filament,  which  bears 
a  two-lobed  body,  the  anther,  which  produces 
a  fine  fertilizing  powder,  the  pollen.  The 
pistil  has  an  enlarged  base,  the  ovarii,  which 
contains  the  orates,  which  are  to  become 
seeds;  above  this  is  usually  a  prolonged  por- 
tion, the  style.  The  styles  may  be  one  or 
several;  in  the  case  of  the  flax  there  are  five,  Fig. so— stamens 

,  £      ,  .    ,    .  ,ii  ,  •  and  Pistils. 

each  one  of  which  is  surmounted  by  a  stigma, 
that  part  which  receives  the  fertilizing  powder,  or  pollen. 
The  stamens  and  pistils  are  not  always  found  together 
in  the  same  flower.     In  Indian  corn  they  are  separated, 
but  on  the  same  plant  the  tassel  containing  the  stamens 


196  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

or  male  organs,  while  the  silk  and  ear  are  the  pistillate 
parts.  Such  plants  are  called  monoecious.  In  other  in- 
stances, as  spinach,  the  flowers  which  contain  the  stamens 
are  not  found  upon  the  same  individual  plant  with  those 
that  bear  the  pistils.    These  are  called  dioecious  plants. 

Cross  breeding,  where  both  sexes  are  united  in  the  same 
blossom,  is  accomplished  by  removing  the  stamens  and 
dusting  the  pistil  with  the  pollen  of  a  different  variety,  a 
simple  process;  but  from  the  resulting  seed  a  new  variety, 
partaking  somewhat  of  the  qualities  of  both  parents,  will 
be  produced.  Care  is  required  in  the  process.  A  blossom 
must  be  selected  not  fully  expanded,  and  all  the  anthers 
be  cut  out  and  removed.  Protect  the  blossom  with  a 
loose  bag  of  gauze  to  keep  off  the  bees.  As  soon  as  the 
blossom  is  fully  expanded,  collect  on  a  camel's-hair  pencil 
the  pollen  from  a  full-blown  flower  of  the  variety  selected 
for  the  male  parent,  and  apply  it  to  the  stigma  or  point 
of  the  pistil.  Success  depends  upon  the  careful  extraction 
of  the  anthers  before  they  are  advanced  enough  to  ferti- 
lize the  pistil, the  application  of  the  pollen  when  in  perfec- 
tion— that  is,  in  a  powdery  state,  upon  the  stigma  while 
still  moist — and  the  prevention  of  natural  fertilization 
from  pollen  carried  by  insects  or  by  the  wind.  Cross 
breeding  often  takes  place  naturally.  If  different  varie- 
ties of  corn  are  planted  near  together,  often  three  or  four 
kinds  and  colors  of  grain  will  be  found  upon  one  ear  from 
natural  intermixture. 

But  there  are  limits  to  the  power  of  crossing  plants. 
Those  between  two  varieties  of  the  same  species,  as  be- 
tween two  kinds  of  corn,  or  two  varieties  of  the  pear,  are 
common  enough,  and  these  are  fruitful  and  produce  per- 
fect seeds.  In  the  same  genera,  also,  certain  nearly  allied 
species  are  capable  of  fertilizing  each  other;  the  offspring 
in  this  case  is  called  a  hybrid,  and  does  not  always  pro- 
duce perfect  seeds.     Thus    the    different    species  of  the 


PKOPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  197 

strawberry,  also  those  of  the  gourd  and  melon  family, 
readily  intermix.  So  also  do  those  of  the  rose.  But  no 
one  has  succeeded  in  crossing  the  apple  with  the  pear,  or 
the  gooseberry  with  the  currant,  though  in  both  cases 
they  are  species  of  the  same  genus.  Still  less  will  such 
totally  different  plants  as  oranges  and  pomegranates 
intermix. 

Our  flower  gardens  in  modern  times  have  been  greatly 
enriched  by  cross  breeding  and  hybridizing.  Thus  have 
originated  a  great  number  of  new  aud  beautiful  roses, 
rhododendrons,  azaleas,  camellias,  fuchsias,  dahlias,  etc., 
so  beautiful  in  color  and  perfect  in  form  and  habit. 

Propagation  by  Division. — Every  other  mode  of  pro- 
pagating plants,  except  by  seed,  whether  it  be  by  bulbs, 
tubers,  runners,  suckers,  parting  the  roots,  layers,  cut- 
tings, budding  or  grafting,  is  effected  by  a  division  of  the 
plant  to  be  increased. 

Bulbs. — Propagation  by  division,  in  the  case  of  bulbs 
or  tubers,  is  analogous  to  sowing  seeds.  The  new  bulbs 
may  be  separated  when  the  leaves  of  the  mother-plant 
decay.  The  onion,  hyacinth,  tulip,  etc.,  are  generally 
taken  up  and  stored  in  a  moderately  dry,  airy  place,  until 
it  is  the  proper  season  for  growth,  and  are  thought  to 
grow  better  in  consequence  of  their  surplus  moisture  be- 
ing evaporated.  The  corms  or  bulbs  of  the  crocus,  thus 
treated,  produce  better  plants  and  stronger  flowers.  Be- 
moval  gives  an  opportunity  for  changing  the  soil  before 
the  bulbs  are  reset.  There  are,  however,  many  scaly 
bulbs,  as  the  lily,  that  are  injured  if  long  out  of  the 
ground,  and  if  not  planted  again  at  the  proper  season, 
the  strength  of  the  plant  is  much  diminished.  Bulbs 
generally  like  a  light,  rich,  sandy  soil,  well  pulverized, 
and  most  bulbs  and  tubers  require  to  be  planted  more 
deeply  than  seeds. 

Tubers  may  be  taken  up  when  mature,  and  kept  until 


L!  I v  GAKDEXIXG    FOK    THE    SOUTH. 

the  proper  season  for  replanting.  They  may  generally  be 
cut  into  as  many  pieces  as  they  have  eyes,  and  each  eye 
will  produce  a  plant.  The  tubers  of  the  Chinese  yam  have 
no  visible  buds,  but  if  cut  into  pieces  aud  planted,  buds 
will  push  out  from  the  wrinkles  that  appear  upon  its 
surface. 

Runners  are  thrown  out  by  the  strawberry  and  many 
other  plants.  They  spring  from  the  crown  of  the  plant, 
deriving  from  it' their  nourishment,  and  at  a  greater  or 
less  distance  from  the  parent  plant  throw  out  a  bud  above 
and  small  projections  or  rudiments  of  roots,  which,  in 
favorable  conditions,  strike  into  the  soil  and  help  to  nour- 
ish the  young  plant  above.  The  growing  point  of  the 
runner  extends  to  form  another  new  plant  beyond,  lnm- 
ners  cannot  well  take  root  in  dry  weather,  but  in  contact 
with  moist  soil  the  roots  soon  strike.  To  facilitate  the 
rooting,  the  joint  is  often  pegged  down,  or  a  small  stone 
placed  over  it  a  little  behind  the  bud,  which  preserves  the 
earth  in  a  moist  condition  as  well  as  keeps  the  joint  close 
to  the  soil.  If  it  is  desired  to  obtain  as  many  plants  as 
possible,  do  not  permit  the  parent  plant  to  waste  its  vigor 
in  producing  flowers  and  fruit,  but  cut  off  the  flower 
stalks  as  they  appear.  If  strong  plants  are  desired,  stop 
each  runner  after  it  has  made  one  or  two  plants.  The 
new  plants,  when  well  rooted,  are  ready  for  removal  at 
the  proper  season. 

Suckers. — These  proceed  either  from  the  root  or  from 
the  stem,  or  collar  of  the  plant.  Root  Suckers  are  pro- 
duced from  those  plants  which  send  out  stray  horizontal 
roots,  as  the  sucker  is  in  fact  a  bud  from  one  of  these  roots 
which  has  pushed  its  way  through  the  soil  and  become  a 
stem.  As  this  stem  generally  forms  fibrous  roots  of  its 
own  above  the  point  of  junction  with  the  parent  root,  it 
may  be  slipped  off  and  planted  like  a  rooted  cutting. 

Root  suckers  are  thrown  up  by  some  plants,  like  the 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  199 

currant,  close  to  the  mam  stem;  by  others,  like  the  plum 
and  paper  mulberry,  at  considerable  distance.  Rasp- 
berries, poplars,  roses,  lilacs,  and  many  other  shrubs  and 
trees,  are  thus  readily  propagated,  the  offspring  with  the 
roots  that  properly  belong  to  it  being  carefully  separated 
from  the  parent  and  replanted  in  suitable  soil.  The  roots 
of  the  parent  plant  should  be  injured  as  little  as  possible. 
Remove  the  soil,  and  if  the  sucker  springs  from  a  large 
root,  detach  a  slice  of  it  with  the  sucker  instead  of  sever- 
ing it.  The  supply  of  nourishment  being  diminished  by 
separation  from  the  parent  plant,  the  head  of  the  plant 
removed  must  be  cut  in,  except  in  the  case  of  coniferous 
plants,  to  prevent  evaporation. 

The  great  objection  to  planting  suckers  is,  that  plants 
grown  from  them  have  a  much  greater  tendency  to  throw 
out  suckers,  and  thereby  become  exceedingly  annoying  in 
gardens,  by  encroaching  on  other  plants,  than  if  propa- 
gated by  other  methods. 

Stem  Slickers  spring  from  the  stem  of' the  old  plant 
where  its  base  is  beneath  the  surface.  Shoots  originating 
at  this  point  frequently  strike  root  ami  become  rooted 
suckers.  In  plants  in  which  this  natural  tendency  is  not 
sufficiently  strong,  it  may  be  increased  by  earthing  them 
up  well  with  good  mould,  which  may  be  kept  moist  by 
mulching.  The  quince  and  other  plants  are  propagated 
in  this  manner. 

Propagation  by  Slips. — This  is  the  mode  in  which 
many  small  undershrubs,  like  box,  sage,  rue  and  lavender, 
are  increased.  They  are  dug  up  in  spring  or  fall,  and  the 
young  shoots,  with  some  portion  of  root  attached,  slipped 
off  with  the  thumb  and  finger,  and  if  small,  they  are 
planted  a  year  in  nursery  rows.  Many  kinds  of  plants 
grow  from  slips  of  the  young  branches  with  little  or  no 
root  attached.  The  number  of  young  plants  to  be  obtained 
by  division  can  be  increased  in  some  cases  by  sprinkling 


200  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

fine  soil  among  thein  that  the  lower  branches  way  strike 
root  in  it,  or  taking  up  the  plant  and  resetting  deepei 
than  before.  Box  edging  when  overgrown,  if  taken  up 
in  spring,  partly  divided  and  replanted  so  that  the  base 
of  each  shoot  is  covered,  can,  after  rooting,  again  be 
divided  into  as  many  plants  as  there  were  shoots.  Stem 
suckers  are  often  called  slips. 

Parting  the  Roots  is  the  ordinary  way  of  increasing 
herbaceous  perennials  with  annual  steins,  such  as 
phloxes,  chrysanthemums,  etc.,  which  can  be  taken  up  in 
spring  or  autumn,  and  divided  by  hand,  or  with  the 
trowel,  knife  or  spade,  into  a  number  of  plants  with  a 
portion  of  root  to  each. 

Propagation  by  Layers. — A  layer  is  a  branch  or  shoot 
bent  down  into,  and  covered  with,  the  soil,  in  order  to 
make  it  take  root.  Meanwhile  it  is  fed  by  the  parent 
stock,  with  which  its  communication  is,  however,  partially 
obstructed  to  make  the  returning  sap  form  roots,  instead 
of  going  back  into  the  stock.  With  some  plants  a  suf- 
ficient check  is  given  by  simply  bending  and  properly 
covering  it  with  earth;  the  branch  is  held  in  its  place 
by  hooked  pegs  until  it  takes  root.  Rut  in  general  this  is 
not  enough.  The  most  common  way  of  obstructing  the 
return  flow  of  sap  is  when  the  shoot  is  bent  into  the  earth 
to  half  cut  it  through  near  the  bend,  the  free  portion  of 
the  wound  being  called  a  tongue.  This  is  kept  open  by 
a  bit  of  twig,  or  piece  of  crock.  Such  layers  are  in  fact 
cuttings,  only  partially  separated  from  parent-plants. 
The  incision  is  made  through  the  bark  at  the  base  of  a 
bud.  The  object  of  the  gardener  is  to  induce  the  layer 
to  emit  roots  into  the  earth  at  the  tongue.  There  are 
other  modes  of  effecting  this. 

With  this  view,  he  twists  the  shoot  half  round,  so  as  to 
injure  the  wood  vessels;  he  heads  it  back  so  that  only  a 
bud  or  two  appears  above  ground,  and  when  much  Avater- 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  201 

ing  is  required,  he  places  a  handful  of  silver  sand  around 
the  tongued  part,  theu  pressing  the  earth  down  with  his 
foot,  so  as  to  secure  the  layer,  he  leaves  it  without  further 
care.  The  intention  of  both  tongueing  and  twisting  is  to 
prevent  the  return  of  the  saj)  from  the  layer  into  the  main 
stem,  while  a  small  portion  is  allowed  to  rise  out  of  the 
latter  into  the  former.  The  effect  of  this  operation  is  to 
compel  the  returning  sap  to  organize  itself  as  roots,  in- 
stead of  passing  downwards  to  form  wood;  the  bending 
back  is  to  assist  this  object,  by  pre- 
venting the  expenditure  of  sap  in  the 
completion  of  leaves.  The  bud  left 
on  the  tongue  favors  the  emission  of 
roots,  as  a  tendency  exists  in  nearly 


Fig.  81 — Layering. 

all  plants  to  throw  out  roots  at  the  joints,  and  the  silver 
sand  secures  the  drainage  so  necessary  to  cutting. 

The  old  mode  of  forming  the  tongue,  and  the  best, 
unless  the  shoot  is  brittle,  is  shown  in  the  figure,  where 
the  tongue  is  shown  upon  the  underside  of  the  layer.  "A 
plan,"  says  the  Gardener's  Monthly,  "which  is  now  much 
in  vogue  with  the  best  propagators,  is  to  cut  the  tongue 
on  the  upper  surface.  On  bending  down  into  the  soil,  the 
tongue  is  then  twisted  on  one  side,  and  the  young  shoot 
intended  to  form  the  future  plant  may  then  be  lifted  up 
and  bent  towards  the  parent  as  rapidly  as  one  pleases, 
without  any  danger  of  it  snapping  off.  There  is  another 
advantage  in  this  way  of  layering.    It  is  often  necessary, 


202  GAKDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

in  the  stereotyped  way,  to  place  a  chip  or  something  be- 
tween the  tongue  to  keep  it  open.  By  this,  the  twisting 
of  the  tongue  aside  keeps  it  always  separate  from  the  old 
cut.  Again,  by  this  mode,  very  green  shoots  can  be  ope- 
rated on — magnolias,  for  instance — in  June,  and  plants 
may  be  got  well  rooted  by  fall,  instead  of  waiting  for  the 
wood  to  ripen  in  August,  when  Ave  have  to  wait  for  an- 
other year  before  our  layer  is  sufficiently  rooted  to  take 
from  its  parent.  Another  method  of  forming  the  tongue 
is  to  make  the  cut  upon  the  side,  as  in  Figure  81. 

Instead  of  forming  a  tongue  to  make  a  shoot  throw  out 
roots,  the  branch  may  be  split  in  the  center  for  two  inches, 
more  or  less  according  to  its  size,  and  the  parts  separated 
with  a  bit  of  wood.  Roots  will  be  thrown  out  along  the 
edges  of  the  split.  The  returning  sap  may  also  be  ar- 
rested by  ringing;  in  which  case  a  ring  of  bark  is  removed 
from  the  branch  for  the  purpose,  or  by  a  wire  twisted 
tightly  around  it  pinching  the  bark. 

When  the  roots  are  thrown  out  naturally  wherever  a 
joint  touches  the  earth,  as  in  the  verbena,  the  branches 
only  require  pegging  down  to  make  them  form  new 
plants.  Where  it  is  difficult  to  get  the  shoot  to  be  layered 
down  to  the  soil,  a  portion  of  the  soil  may  be  raised  to  the 
plant,  as  the  Chinese  gardeners  practice  in  a  pot,  the 
earth  in  which  should  be  kept  steadily  moist. 

Another  mode  of  layering  is  by  insertion  of  the  grow- 
ing point  in  the  soil.  When  the  shoots  of  a  raspberry  or 
gooseberry  are  of  some  length  and  firmness,  if  the  grow- 
ing points  are  inserted  in  well-dug  soil,  they  will  form  a 
nice  bundle  of  roots  and  a  good  bud  ready  for  transplant- 
ing in  autumn.  This  is  worthy  of  trial  with  many  other 
plants. 

The  grape  is  best  layered  by  digging  a  trench  and  lay- 
ing therein  a  thrifty  cane  in  the  spring.  Let  remain  until 
young  shoots,  three  or  four  inches  long,  are  formed;  then 


PROPAGATION   OF  PLANTS.  203 

gently  draw  a  little  of  the  soil  into  the  trench  covering 
the  parent  cane,  and  as  the  shoots  increase  in  strength, 
till  up  the  trench,  and  each  young  shoot  will  make  a  fine 
plant  by  autumn. 

In  general,  the  best  season  for  layering  is  before  the 
sap  begins  to  rise  in  the  spring,  or,  in  the  case  of  wood 
of  the  same  season's  growth,  in  the  summer  after  June.  A 
good  time  for  roses  is  after  the  first  bloom  is  over.  Lay- 
ered at  this  time,  they  will  generally  be  fit  to  take  up  the 
ensuing  winter,  but  most  plants  require  twelve  months, 
and  some  two  years,  before  they  will  root.  In  nurseries 
the  ground  is  prepared  around  each  stool  by  digging  and 
manuring,  and  the  branches  laid  down  neatly,  so  as  to 
form  a  circle  of  rays  around  the  stool,  with  the  ends  rising 
all  around  the  circle  to  about  the  same  height. 

Cuttings. — A  cutting  is  a  part  of  a  plant  detached  from 
the  parent  stock,  which,  placed  in  proper  conditions,  will 
emit  roots  and  become  in  its  turn  a  new  plant.  It  may  be 
a  portion  of  the  stem,  the  branches,  or  the  root,  and  some- 
times even  a  leaf. 

In  a  cutting,  as  in  a  growing  plant,  two  forces  are  in 
constant  activity,  those  of  absorption  and  of  evaporation. 
Its  life  cannot  be  long  continued,  unless  these  correspond 
with  each  other.  A  cutting,  from  the  lack  of  roots,  absorbs 
feebly  from  the  soil;  hence  evaporation  must  be  dimin- 
ished to  correspond,  and  the  base  of  the  cutting  must  be 
in  contact  with  a  substance  more  or  less  humid.  Evapora- 
tion is  diminished  by  planting  in  a  northern  exposure, 
shading,  the  use  of  bell-glasses,  etc.  The  more  herbaceous 
or  immature  a  cutting  may  be,  the  greater  care  is  required 
to  protect  it  from  excessive  evaporation. 

Cuttings  of  hardy  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs  should 
be  taken  off  after  the  leaves  fall,  or  before  the  sap  rises  in 
the  spring.  Those  that  strike  readily  in  the  open  ground 
in  mild  climates  may  be  planted  out  to  form  the  callus, 


204  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

and  be  ready  to  enter  into  growth  with  the  opening- 
spring.  In  more  northern  climates  they  may  be  prepared 
for  planting,  and  stored  in  moistened  moss  or  damp  earth, 
and  kept  from  frost.  The  callus  will  be  forming,  and  they 
will  be  ready  to  plant  in  early  spring.  Generally,  cuttings 
should  not  be  taken  when  the  sap  is  in  full  flow,  as  moist- 
ure is  then  rapidly  evaporated  and  the  cutting  exhausted 
before  roots  are  formed.  They  should  be  taken  when  the 
plant  is  dormant,  or  when  a  new  shoot  has  been  made 
with  leaves  so  fully  formed  and  matured  as  to  be  in  the 

act  of  forming  abundance  of  w ly  tissue. 

In  selecting  cuttings,  they  should  come  from  healthy 
plants,  from  shoots  of  average  strength,  well  nourished, 
but  not  over  vigorous,  as  the  latter  are  more  quickly 
exhausted  when  deprived  of  their  usual  supply  of  nour- 
ishment. Horizontal  branches  growing  near  the  ground, 
especially  those  which  recline  upon  it,  have  a  greater  ten- 
dency to  throw  out  roots.  Upright  shoots  from  near  the 
summit  are  generally,  but  not  always,  less  likely  to  suc- 
ceed. The  willow  and  poplar  strike  freely  from  old  wood, 
and  trunks  of  considerable  size,  if  planted,  will  emit  roots, 
but  of  most  trees  the  best  plants  are  made  from  well- 
matured  shoots  of  the  current  jear's  growth.  In  the  case 
of  hard-wooded  plants  that  are  hard  to  strike,  it  is  a  nice 
matter  to  select  a  portion  of  shoot  in  which  the  wood  is 
neither  too  old  and  hard,  from  which  roots  will  uot  be 
readily  emitted,  or  too  young  and  soft,  as  in  this  case  they 
will  damp  off.  Rose  cuttings  strike  most  readily  when 
not  quite  fully  matured.  The  proper  state  of  firmness  dif- 
fers in  different  species.  The  age  at  which  a  cutting  of 
any  species  will  strike  best  or  strike  at  all,  is  determined 
by  experiment,  but  when  once  ascertained,  it  is  invariably 
the  same.  The  proper  age  of  an  untried  species  may  be 
proximately  determined  from  that  of  the  most  closely 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  205 

related  species  in  which  it  is  known,  and  will  often  prove 
to  be  right  if  the  species  are  nearly  allied. 

Some  cuttings  require  little  preparation.  A  willow 
may  be  sharpened  and  driven  into  the  soil  and  will  take 
root,  and  in  some  instances  has  done  so,  if  planted  bottom 
upwards.  Currants  and  gooseberries,  cut  into  suitable 
lengths,  will  emit  roots  not  only  from  the  callus,  but  from 
any  part  beneath  the  soil.  Of  these,  as  of  cuttings  of  all 
deciduous  trees,  the  buds  on  the  part  of  the  cutting  be- 
neath the  soil  must  be  removed  before  planting,  or  they 
will  push  and  become  shoots.  Cuttings  of  which  the 
leaves  have  fully  performed  their  office,  and  the  wood  is 
ripened  early  in  the  season,  if  made  and  planted  out  in 
warm,  moist  soil,  will  form  roots  before  winter,  and  be 
ready  to  push  into  vigorous  growth  in  spring.  Such  cut- 
tings, planted  in  August  or  early  in  September,  are  nearly 
a  year  in  advance  of  spring-planted  cuttings. 

Cuttings  of  plants,  difficult  to  strike,  may  have  a  ring 
of  bark  taken  out  just  beneath  a  joint,  at  midsummer, 
which  will  cause  a  swelling  of  the  branch  above  the  ring. 
The  branch  is  cut  off  in  autumn  at  the  base  of  the  swell- 
ing, the  top  shortened,  and  it  is  planted  as  a  cutting,  or 
it.  is  buried  in  the  soil  for  the  swelling  to  soften,  and 
planted  early  in  the  spring.  With  plants  that  are  not 
very  free  to  strike,  it  is  from  the  joints  only  that  roots  can 
be  expected  to  grow;  hence,  in  making  cuttings,  the  shoot 
is  divided  just  below  a  joint,  and  it  is  considered  best  to 

choose  a  joint  between  the  young  w 1  and  that  of  the 

previous  season.  The  cut  should  be  quite  smooth,  for  if 
the  shoot  be  bruised,  the  returning  sap  will  not  be  able  to 
reach  the  wound  in  sufficient  quantity  to  make  it  heal 
over  and  form  the  callus  quickly,  and  the  cutting  will  be 
likely  to  fail.  When  the  callus  is  properly  formed,  there 
is  little  difficulty  in  striking  cuttings.  To  form  the  callus 
they  may  be  mixed  with  damp  sphagnum  moss,  or  old 


20  G 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


tan,  and  kept  in  a  dark  cellar  until  about  to  push  roots. 
Cuttings  may  be  placed  loosely  in  a  common  preserving 
bottle,  with  a  wet  sponge,  the  water  drained  out,  and 
the  bottle  stopped  with  a  cork  which  has  a  half-inch  hole 
in  the  top  to  admit  air.  This  may  be  kept  where  the 
atmosphere  ranges  from  temperate  to  summer  heat,  and 
the  callus  will  form  very  quickly. 

Preparation. — : The  way  to  prepare  cuttings  for  planting- 
is  best  shown  by  an  illustration.  Figure  82  A  shows  a 
cutting  formed  from  a  lateral 
shoot,  and  has  been  cut  off 
from  the  main  branch  with  a 
heel  attached.  Such  cuttings 
are  sometimes  torn  out  and 
the  bottom  smoothed  with  a 
sharp  knife,  so  as  to  present 
a  larger  surface  for  the  ab- 
sorption of  moisture.  At  B  is 
a  deciduous,  woody  cutting, 
;is  commonly  prepared.  At 
C  is  shown  a  mode 
in  which  grape  cut- 
tings are  sometimes 
prepared ;  the  two 
extremities  of  the 
fragment  of  branch 
at  the  base  are  fur- 
nished with  buds.  This  is  a  mode  which  greatly  favors  the 
emission  of  roots.  Figure  83  is  a  cutting  of  a  geranium 
ready  for  insertion  in  the  soil.  In  this  case  the  lower 
leaves  have  been  removed;  they  should  be  clipped  but 
very  little  farther  from  the  base  than  where  the  cutting  is 
to  be  inserted  in  the  soil.  The  leaves  being  kept  near  the 
moist  surface,  do  not  evaporate  as  rapidly  as  when  ele- 
vated much  above.    The  petiole  (or  leaf  stalk)  should  be 


Fig.  82— Different  Forms  of  Cuttings. 


PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS. 


201 


cut  off  as  close  to  the  stem  as  can  be  done  without  injury 
to  the  bark.  If  much  of  it  is  left  and  buried  in  the  soil,  it 
is  apt  to  rot  and  produce  decay  in  the  cutting  i t self.  If  an 
old  leaf  or  two  is  left,  it  will  elaborate  more  sap  for  the 
formation  of  new  roots  than  the  very  young  ones.  Cut- 
tings of  succulent  plants,  like  the  cacti,  geranium,  etc., 

require  to  dry  a  little  that 
the  wound  may  heal  over 
before  inserting  in  the 
soil. 

The  grape  is  often  pro- 
pagated from  a  single 
eye — a  mode  now  very 
much  in  use  for  new  varie- 
ties. These  cuttings, 
shaped  in  one  of  the  form,-! 
shown  in  Figure  84,  arc1 
planted  in  small  pots  un- 
der glass,  the  surface  kept 
damp,  and  bottom  heal  ap- 
plied. They  soon  take,  and 
form  the  best  vines. 

The  substances  in  which 
cuttimis  are  struck  are  va- 


Fig.  83— Geranium  Cutting. 

etc.,  will  root  in  common 


vious.     Many    plants,    as 


chrysanthemums,  currants, 
garden  soil.  Powdered  char- 
coal, brick  dust,  and  even  pure  water  are  employed,  but 
the  most  useful  substance  is  pure  silver  sand,  white, 
clean  and  fine.  Sea  sand  must  not  be  used,  unless  all 
saline  matter  is  washed  out.  Sand  contains  little  food 
for  plants,  and  they  need  little  until  the  roots  are  formed, 
but  it  is  free  from  matters  which  induce  decay.  It  is 
porous  and  gives  ready  passage  for  the  young  rootlets, 
and,  being  fine,  retains  moisture  by  capillary  attraction. 


208 


GAEDENIKG    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Some  plants  will  strike  roots  if  the  ends  of  the  cuttings 
are  kept  in  water  of  the  proper  temperature.  Bottles, 
vials,  and  jars  are  used  to  hold  the  water,  but  as  light  is 
rather  an  obstacle  to  the  ready  formation  of  roots,  if  the 
vessel  is  transparent  it  should  be  shaded.  As  soon  as  the 
roots  begin  to  appear,  the  cuttings  should  be  taken  from 
the  water  and  planted  in  fine  soil,  which  must  be  kept 

moist,  and  the  plants 
carefully  shaded  until 
they  take  fresh  root. 

Insertion. — Cuttings 
of  hardy  plants  that 
strike  readily  in  the 
open  air  are  some- 
times inserted  with  a 


i 


yA 


' 


to  cut  off  by  a  line  a 
straight  edge  in  the 
dug  soil,  and  place 
the  prepared  cuttings 
against  it,  pressing 
the  soil  closely  around 
them.  These  are  usu- 
ally set  perpendicu- 
larly. If  the  cuttings 
are  long,  they  can  be 
set  in  a  sloping  direc- 
tion so  as  to  be  within  reach  of  atmospheric  influences. 
If  not  herbaceous,  they  should  be  inserted  so  deep  that 
but  two  buds  will  be  above  the  surface,  and  in  the  vine 
but  one.    Herbaceous  cuttings  are  inserted  less  deeply. 

When  small  cuttings  are  planted  under  glass,  a  pointed 
stick  of  proper  size  is  used.  Many  kinds  may  be  planted 
all  over  the  surface  of  the  spot,  but  most  do  better  when 
inserted  near  the  sides  or  bottom  of  the  pot,  and  take  root 


Fig.  84 — Three  Forms  of  Grape  Cuttings. 


PKOPAGATION  OF  PLANTS.  209 

more  readily.  The  soil  in  all  cases  about  a  cutting  must 
be  closely  pressed  against  its  extremity,  or  it  will  never 
strike  root. 

Temperature. — Many  cuttings  that  rarely  strike  root  in 
the  open  ground  do  so  freely  when  moist  bottom  heat  is 
applied.  When  the  soil  is  but  slightly  warmer  than  the 
air,  the  roots  grow  in  proportion  to  the  top,  but  if  the 
soil  is  constantly  warmer,  the  disposition  to  produce  roots 
will  be  greater  than  to  produce  tops.  In  striking  cuttings 
the  object  is  to  produce  roots,  and  then  leaves  will  follow; 
hence  the  temperature  of  the  soil  should  be  somewhat 
higher  than  that  in  which  the  species  naturally  com- 
mences growth,  in  order  to  secure  good  roots,  without 
which  there  can  be  no  vigorous  leaf-buds.  This  stimulus 
should  be  applied  to  soft-wood  plants  almost  imme- 
diately; others  may  require  some  delay  until  the  callus  is 
formed.  Deciduous  shrubs  in  a  dormant  state-should  at 
first  be  placed  in  a  temperature  very  little  higher  than 
would  excite  and  swell  their  buds  on  the  parent  tree.  In- 
crease the  bottom  heat  gradually,  keeping  the  soil 
warmer  than  the  atmosphere.  From  50°  to  60°  is  about 
right  for  the  soil  at  this  period,  and  about  50  for  the  at- 
mosphere for  hardy  and  greenhouse  plants,  increasing 
the  bottom  heat  to  65°  or  70°  very  gradually,  when  the 
roots  commence  growth.  Care  should  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent its  falling  lower  until  rooted,  when  it  may  gradually 
be  lessened  until  but  little  above  that  of  the  air  of  the 
place  in  which  they  are  growing. 

Moisture. — The  cutting,  while  rooting,  must  be  kept  in 
a  suitable  state  of  moisture.  In  vine  cuttings,  and  others, 
nearly  covered  with  soil,  all  that  is  required  is  to  keep 
them  in  such  an  equable  state  of  moisture  that  they  can 
have  as  much  as  they  can  appropriate,  and  no  more.  A 
cutting  requires  more  moisture  in  the  soil  than  a  rooted 
plant. 

14 


210  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

To  recapitulate:  The  principal  points  to  be  attended  to 
in  making  cuttings  are — to  cut  off  the  .shoot  at  a  joint, 
without  harming  the  stem;  to  select  shoots  with  well 
matured  buds;  to  fix  the  eud  which  is  to  seud  out  roots 
firmly  iu  the  soil;  to  keep  up  an  equable  degree  of  heat 
and  moisture;  to  cut  off  part  of  the  leaves  and  shade  the 
whole,  to  prevent  evaporation,  without  too  much  exclud- 
ing light,  of  which  a  portion  is  needed  to  stimulate  the 
cutting  into  growth;  to  keep  the  soil  moist  but  not  too 
damp.  It  is  well  to  transplant  them  into  small  pots,  sup- 
plied with  water  regularly  and  moderately  as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  grow.  Cuttings  of  slow-growing  plants  are  those 
most  liable  to  fail.  An  excess  of  heat,  cold  air,  water,  and 
light  are  all  injurious  to  tender  cuttings. 

Pipings. — Cuttings  of  plants  with  tubular  stems,  like 
the  pink,  are  called  pipings.  The  upper  part  of  a  shoot, 
when  nearly  done  growing,  is  pulled  out  of  the  socket 
close  above  a  joint,  leaving  the  part  pulled  out  with  a 
pipelike  termination.  These  pipings  usually  have  their 
leaves  or  "  grass  "  trimmed  a  little,  and  are  struck  in  sand 
about  an  inch  apart,  with  a  bell-glass  closely  fixed  over 
them.  If  well  watered  at  first,  they  will  not  require  it 
again  for  some  time.  They  are  planted  about  three-quar- 
ters of  an  inch  deep,  and  treated  like  other  herbaceous 
cuttings.    Under  a  north  wall  they  succeed  finely. 

Root  Cuttings. — Many  shrubs  and  plants  are  in  this 
way  most  easily  increased.  Pyrus  Japonica,  blackberry, 
rose,  apple,  pear,  quince,  elm,  mulberry,  osage  orange, 
etc.,  if  their  roots  are  cut  in  pieces  some  three  to  nine 
inches  long,  and  planted  vertically  with  the  end  nearest 
the  stem  up,  and  covered  slightly  with  earth,  will  soon 
form  buds  and  throw  up  shoots.  Many  herbaceous  plants, 
as  sea-kale,  horseradish,  Japan  anemone,  etc.,  are  thus 
increased.  Of  these  the  cuttings  are  made  short,  and, 
except  the  second  named,  planted  horizontally. 


BUDDING  AND   GRAFTING.  211 

CHAPTER  X. 

BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING. 

Budding  is  the  art  of  making  a  bud  unite  to  the  stem 
or  branch  of  another  tree  independently  of  its  parent.  It 
is  a  cutting  with  a  single  eye  inserted  in  another  tree 
called  a  stock,  instead  of  in  the  ground.  The  operation 
may  be  performed  at  any  time  after  the  buds  of  the  new 
wood  are  sufficiently  matured.  These  must  be  perfectly 
developed,  which  is  seldom  the  case  until  the  shoot  has 
temporarily  ceased  to  lengthen,  which  is  indicated  by  the 
perfect  formation  of  the  terminal  bud.  If  the  buds  are 
desired  very  early,  their  maturity  may  be  hastened  by 
pinching  the  tops  of  the  shoots. 

The  ordinary  time  for  budding,  north  of  Virginia,  is 
from  the  middle  of  July  to  the  middle  of  September,  and 
the  buds  in  general  remain  dormant  until  spring.  Roses 
are,  however,  budded  earlier,  and  allowed  to  make  some 
growth.  In  the  South,  buds  are  inserted  at  any  time 
when  the  bark  will  rise,  from  June  to  October.  Those 
put  in  early  will  make  a  tine  growth  before  autumn  in 
favorable  seasons.  A  very  necessary  condition  to  success- 
ful budding  is  that  the  bark  rise  freely  from  the  stock,  and 
this  must  be  in  a  thrifty,  growing  state,  as  when  pushing 
into  new  growth  a  day  or  two  after  a  fine  rain.  If  the 
weather  is  too  cold  or  the  soil  too  dry,  the  bark  will  not 
rise.  Such  trees  as  make  most  of  their  growth  early  in  the 
season  must  be  budded  before  they  cease  to  grow.  Young 
shoots,  when  the  buds  are  in  a  proper  state,  are  cut  below 
the  lowest  plump  bud.  If  to  be  budded  immediately,  all 
the  leaf  is  cut  off,  except  the  leaf  stem,  which  is  left  for 
convenience  of  inserting,  and  in  order  to  attract  the  sap 
into  the  buds.    If  the  buds  are  to  be  preserved  any  time, 


212 


GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 


the  whole  leaf  with  half  of  the  leaf  stem  is  removed  to 
prevent  evaporation.  If  this  is  done  as  soon  as  they  are 
cut,  they  may  be  preserved  several  days  in  a  closely  cov- 
ered tin  box,  or  tightly  corked  preserve  jar,  if  in  a  cool 
place,  and  indeed,  if  the  wood  is  well  ripened,  though  the 
footstalk  of  the  leaf  will  drop,  the  bud  will  be  in  perfect 
condition  some  weeks.     No  water  need  be  given  if  there 

are  several  cuttings 
in  the  box,  as  the 
air  becomes  suffi- 
cient ly  saturated 
with  moisture  from 
the  cuttings  them- 
selves. 

The  strings  used 
for  tying  are  taken 
fro  m  bass  mats, 
which  should  be 
wetted  before  use, 
until  perfectly  pli- 
able. Better  strings 
are  made  of  white 
woollen  y  a  r  n  ,  as 
they  are  more  elas- 
tic, and  the  color  re- 
flects the  heat.  The 
pruning  and  budding  knives  are  the  only  implements 
required  for  the  operation.  The  condition  of  the  budding 
knife  is  of  importance  to  success.  It  should  be  made  thin, 
and  the  edge  kept  perfectly  smooth  and  keen.  The  mode 
in  which  budding  is  performed  is  shown  in  Figure  85. 

Having  the  implements,  stocks,  and  buds  in  the  proper 
condition,  take  the  shoot  in  the  left  hand,  and  the  bud- 
ding knife  in  the  right.  Insert  the  edge  of  the  knife  in 
the  shoot,  half  an  inch  above  the  bud  to  be  taken  off. 


Fig.  85— Budding. 


BUDDING  AND   GRAFTING.  2 13 

The  bud  is  taken  off  with  a  drawing  cut,  parallel  with  the 
shoot,  removing  the  bark  and  the  bud  attached,  with  a 
slight  portion  of  the  wood  beneath  the  bud,  half  an  inch 
above,  and  three-fourths  of  an  inch  below.  The  English 
remove  this  slight  portion  of  the  wood,  taking  great  care 
not  to  injure  the  root  of  the  bud;  but  it  does  not  succeed 
so  well  in  this  climate  as  if  a  small  portion  of  wood  be 
left  directly  under  the  bud.  Select,  then,  a  small  portion 
of  the  stock,  smooth  and  free  from  branches,  and  make 
two  cuts  through  the  bark,  one  across  the  end  of  the 
other  in  the  shape  of  a  T,  as  in  the  figure.  Theu  raise 
the  bark  on  the  two  edges  of  the  perpendicular  cut  with 
the  smooth  ivory  haft  of  the  budding  knife;  insert  the 
bud  gently  beneath  the  parts  raised,  not  forcing  it  down 
like  a  wedge  so  as  to  rub  off  the  cambium  of  the  stock, 
but  pressing  very  little  against  the  stock  until  so  fully 
inserted  that  its  own  cambium  can  be  applied  directly  to 
that  of  the  stock  where  it  is  to  remain;  cut  off  the  top 
of  the  bark  attached  to  the  bud  square,  that  it  may  tit  the 
cut  across  the  stock;  then  wind  the  bass  pretty  tightly 
about  the  stock,  commencing  below  the  end  of  the  bud, 
and  pass  it  closely  around  up  to  the  bud.  The  shield 
should  here  be  firmly  pressed,  that  the  base  of  the  bud 
may  closely  rest  upon  the  alburnum;  bring  the  tie  pretty 
close  to  the  under  side  of  the  bud,  making  the  next  turn 
wider,  so  that  the  point  of  the  bud  and  the  leaf  stalk  may 
be  seen  between  the  turns  of  the  tie;  continue  binding 
closely  until  the  cress  incision  is  covered,  then  fasten  with 
a  knot.  Cover  every  part  of  the  incision,  except  the  bud 
and  leaf  stalk  attached,  which  should  remain  uncovered. 
Do  not  tie  it  so  tightly  as  to  cut  into  the  bark,  but  so  as 
to  exert  upon  it  a  moderate  pressure.  The  bud  is  put 
upon  the  north  side  of  the  stock,  when  practicable,  and 
when  not,  a  little  paper  cap  may  be  tied  to  the  stock,  to 
project  over  the  bud,  so  as  to  admit  the  light,  but  exclude 


214  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  The  success  of  the  operation 
depends  on  its  being  performed  rapidly,  and  with  fresh, 
healthy  buds;  clean,  smooth  cuts;  the  bark  rising  cleanly 
and  freely  from  the  wood;  the  exact  lit  of  the  bud  to  the 
incision;  and  close,  secure  tying,  to  exclude  the  air  and 
water.  If  the  operation  is  performed  in  moist  weather, 
and  the  bark  of  the  bud  is  joined  closely  to  the  wood  of 
the  stock,  success  is  almost  certain.  If  the  stocks  are  in  a 
proper  state,  the  upper  edges  only  of  the  slit  need  be 
raised  with  the  haft,  and  the  bud  being  gently  pushed  to 
its  place,  will  raise  the  bark  smoothly  before  it,  and  the 
insertion  be  more  firm  than  if  the  bark  had  been  entirely 
raised  with  the  haft.  It  is  an  operation  requiring  much 
exactness,  but  may  be  done  in  one  minute;  the  point 
where  a  beginner  will  most  likely  fail  is  in  the  proper  re- 
moval of  the  bud. 

As  soon  as  the  bud  has  taken,  the  ligature  may  be 
loosened,  and  should  be  entirely  removed  when  it  begins 
to  cut  into  the  bark.  If  the  leaf  stalk,  after  a  few  days, 
drops  off,  it  indicates  the  bud  has  taken;  if  it  withers  or 
adheres,  the  bud  is  likely  to  be  dead  or  dying.  The  buds 
must  be  frequently  examined,  and  the  ties  loosened,  if 
becoming  too  tight,  as  they  will  in  growing  stocks.  If  it 
is  desired  to  start  the  bud  into  .immediate  growth,  soon 
after  it  has  evidently  taken,  the  stock  may  be  shortened 
to  within  ten  or  twelve  inches  of  the  bud,  and  all  shoots 
rubbed  off  as  they  appear,  except  that  from  the  inserted 
bud.  When  this  has  grown  three  or  four  inches,  the  stock 
is  cut  off  again  near  the  budded  shoot,  and  when  this  has 
grown  some  inches,  the  stock  is  cut  off  close  to  its  base. 
When  it  is  desired  that  the  bud  should  remain  dormant, 
cutting  back  the  stock  is  delayed  until  just  before  the 
flow  of  sap  starts  in  spring.  Buds  that  are  not  permitted 
to  push  until  spring  soon  overtake  the  others  in  growth. 

Budding  is  the  most  rapid  mode  of  increasing  rare 


BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING.  215 

varieties,  of  which  every  bud  is  almost  sure  to  make  a 
good  plant  if  the  operation  is  quickly  aud  skillfully  per- 
formed. It  is  the  easiest  method  of  propagating  apples, 
pears,  and  most  other  fruit  trees.  In  the  case  of  peaches 
it  is  almost  universally  applied,  and  also  with  those  roses 
that  will  not  succeed  readily  from  cuttings.  Budding  aud 
grafting  can  be  performed  only  upou  plants  of  the  same, 
or  nearly  related,  species.  Thus  a  peach  can  be  budded 
on  a  plum,  as  they  are  both  stone  fruits,  and  belong  to  the 
same  natural  group  of  plants,  but  no  art  could  make  the 
peach  flourish  on  the  apple  or  pear  as  a  stock. 

Grafting. — This  differs  from  budding  in  its  being  the 
transfer  of  a  shoot,  with  several  buds  upon  it,  from  one 
tree  to  another,  instead  of  merely  employing  a  single  bud. 
It  is  performed  by  bringing  portions  of  two  growing 
shoots  together,  so  that  the  soft  wood  of  the  two  may 
unite  together.  The  shoot  to  be  transferred  is  called  the 
scion,  and  the  tree  which  is  to  receive  it  is  called  the 
stock.  The  stocks  are  of  all  ages  and  sizes,  but  they  must 
be  sound  and  healthy.  The  scions  employed  are  generally 
shoots  of  the  preceding  year's  growth,  which  may  be  cut 
at  any  time  after  the  leaves  fall,  and  inay  be  buried  in  a 
dry  soil,  with  the  upper  extremities  slightly  projecting 
on  the  north  of  a  wall.  They  must  be  protected  from 
heavy  rains,  or  the  buds  will  start  too  early.  Amateurs 
can  best  keep  all  they  wish  in  a  corked  preserve  jar,  or 
a  tin  box,  or  closely  covered  bucket.  Examine  them  occa- 
sionally, and  if  too  much  moisture  is  present,  leave  the 
cover  off  a  few  hours.  The  drier  the  better,  if  they  do  not 
begin  to  shrivel.    Keep  in  a  cool  place. 

Scions  of  healthy,  close-jointed  wood  should  always  be 
chosen.  If  they  are  to  be  sent  to  a  distance,  those  of 
rather  large  size  and  close  joints  should  be  selected, 
enveloped  in  a  little  thin  paper  slightly  dampened,  and 
the  whole  covered  tightly  with  oiled  silk.     In  this  way 


216  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

they  will  go  a  thousand  miles  in  perfect  safety.  The  butt 
and  extremities  of  scions  should  both  be  rejected.  The 
tools  required  are,  a  grafting  knife,  saw,  and  chisel;  but, 
for  whip  grafting,  the  knife  only  is  employed.  Two  kinds 
should  be  used,  one  to  prune  and  pare  the  stock,  and  the 
other  to  prepare  the  graft. 

Grafting  Wax. — A  composition  of  very  good  quality 
is  made  of  four  parts  rosin,  two  of  beeswax,  and  one  of 
tallow.  Melt  it  altogether,  turn  it  into  cold  water,  and 
work  and  pull  it  thoroughly  until  it  turns  whitish;  just 
as  children  do  molasses  candy.  A  wax  for  cold  weather 
will  work  better  with  a  little  less  rosin,  and  in  warm  with 
a  little  more.  The  stiffness  of  the  wax  is  increased  or 
diminished  by  employing  less  or  more  of  tallow.  In  cold 
weather  keep  the  composition  in  warm  water,  and  in 
warm  in  cold  water.  In  putting  it  on,  the  hands  must  be 
slightly  greased,  to  keep  it  from  sticking  to  them,  but 
in  operating  grease  the  scion  and  stock  as  little  as  pos- 
sible. 

In  applying  the  wax,  be  careful  to  cover  the  scion  on 
the  sides  and  the  cleft  in  the  stock,  forming  a  cap  over  the 
top,  and  pressing  it  closely  and  tightly  around  the  graft, 
so  as  to  cover  every  crack,  and  carefully  to  exclude  the 
air  and  water.  More  convenient  than  the  wax  itself,  espe- 
cially for  whip  grafting,  is  (loth  saturated  in  wax  that 
has  been  made  softer  by  using  more  tallow  and  beeswax 
and  less  rosin.  Take  any  thin,  half-worn  calico  or  muslin, 
tear  it  into  narrow  strips,  roll  them  loosely  into  small 
balls,  and  soak  them  in  the  hot  composition  until  every 
pore  is  filled.  When  wished  for  use,  it  is  unwound  from 
the  balls,  and  torn  into  smaller  strips,  of  the  proper 
length  and  breadth  required  by  the  size  of  the  stock. 
These  strips,  wound  two  or  three  times  around  the  stock 
and  graft,  secures  it  perfectly. 

Modes  and  Time  of  Grafting. — The  modes  of  graft- 


BUDDING    AND    GUAFTIJS'G. 


21' 


ing  most  usually  practiced  are  whip  and  cleft  grafting, 
and  they  are  practiced  on  the  stem  and  branches,  or  the 
roots  of  trees.  Koot  grafting  can  be  performed  at  any 
time  in  this  climate,  or  from  the  fall  of  the  leaf  until  the 
buds  begin  to  open.  The  peach,  grafted  in  this  way  early 
in  the  season,  succeeds  perfectly  at  the  South,  but  gen- 
erally fails  north  of  Virginia.  Stone  fruits  of  all  kiuds 
must  be  grafted  earlier  than  apples,  pears,  etc.,  as  their 
sap  seems  to  lose  all  agglu- 
tinating properties  after  its 
first  flow. 

( } raft  them  just  as  the  buds 
are  about  to  swell,  but  for 
most  other  species  the  best 
time  for  grafting,  except  in 
the  root,  where  the  scion  will 
be  protected  by  the  earth  cov- 
ering it,  is  while  the  buds  are 
swellingin  the  spring.  If  put 
in  before  that  time  the  alter- 
nate freezing  and  thawing  to 
which  they  are  exposed  of  Ion 
destroys  the  vitality  of  the 
graft.  Apples,  pears,  etc., 
may  be  grafted  until  they 
blossom,  if  the  scions  are  kept 

perfectly  fresh,  and  have  not  started.  Grafting  succeeds 
perfectly  well  just  before  the  second  growth,  early  in 
August,  if  the  sap  is  thrown  into  the  graft,  by  nibbing  off 
the  other  shoots  as  they  appear;  but  it  is  just  as  well  to 
wait  until  spring,  there  being  no  gain  in  the  growth  of 
the  graft  over  those  put  in  at  the  usual  season. 

Whip  or  Splice  Grafting. — This  mode  is  applicable 
to  all  small  stocks,  and  succeeds  best  where  the  scion  and 
stock  are  exactly  the  same  size.    Both  stock  and  scion 


Fig.  86.  Fig.  87 

Splice  Grafting. 


218 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


are  cut  off  with  a  sloping  cut  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
long  on  each,  so  as  to  match  precisely,  if  of  the  same  size; 
or,  if  not,  at  least  on  one  side.  A  tongue  is  then  made  on 
each  by  slitting  the  scion  upward,  and  the  stock  down- 


other,  thus  holding  the  scion  firmly  in  its  place.  Bind  it 
closely  with  the  cloth  covered  with  the  composition.  The 
engravings  (Figures  86  and  87)  show  the  different  steps  of 
the  operation.  It  is  the  neatest,  most  expeditious,  and 
most  successful  mode  of  grafting,  where  the  stocks  are  of 

the  proper  size. 
S  t  o  c  k  s  ,  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  or 
even  an  inch,  may 
be  grafted  in  this 
way,  but  for  inch 
stocks  cleft  graft- 
ing is  preferable. 
Cleft  Graft- 
ing is  the  more 
common  mode.  It 
may  be  practiced 
on  large  or  small 
stocks,  but  for  the 
latter  whip  grafting  only  should  be  employed.  The  top 
of  the  stock  is  cut  off  carefully  with  a  fine  saw,  and  pared 
smoothly  with  a  sharp  knife.  The  stock  is  then  split  with 
the  grafting  tool,  and  held  open  with  the  chisel  of  the  same 
(Figure  88).  A  common  knife  will  answer  for  splitting, 
and  the  split  may  be  kept  open  for  insertion  with  a 
wooden  wedge  or  a  large  nail  of  which  the  point  has 
been  ground  down  to  a  wedge  shape.  Sharpen  the  lower 
part  of  the  scion  into  a  smooth  wedge,  one  and  a  half 
inches  long,  more  or  less,  according  to  its  size,  and  that  of 


Fig.  88. 


Fig. 
Splice  Grafting, 


Fig.  90. 


BUDDING  AND   GRAFTING. 


219 


the  split  in  the  stock.  The  exterior  side  of  the  scion  when 
sharpened  should  be  slightly  thicker  than  the  other,  that 
it  may  be  sure  to  make  a  close  fit  there  (Figure  89).  Let 
the  scion  have  two  or  more  buds,  of  which  one  should  be 
on  the  wedge  and  inserted  just  below  the  top  of  the  stock 
(Figure  90).  This  often  grows  when  the  others  fail.  The 
main  point  is  that  the  inside  bark  of  the  scion  and  that 
of  the  stock  should  exactly  correspond,  and 
meet  at  their  edges  at  least  in  one  place.  To 
effect  this,  it  is  usual  to  set  the  scion  so  that 
its  upper  extremity  falls  a  little  without  the 
line  made  by  the  continuation  of  the  stock 
on  the  side  in  which  it  is  inserted.  It  is  bet- 
ter, as  in  Figure  91,  to  set  it  a  little  within  or 
towards  the  heart  of  the  stock,  and  the  base 
of  the  scion  a  little  out,  and  when  the  scion 
and  stock  cross  each  other,  a  meeting- of  the 
edges  will  be  certain,  and  even  a  novice  will 
thus  succeed.  One  or  two  scions  are  set  in 
the  stock  according  to  its  size;  the  wedge  is 
then  withdrawn,  and  the  whole  carefully  cov- 
ered with  the  composition  so  as  to  exclude  all 
air  and  moisture. 

Root  Grafting. — Both  the  whip  and  cleft 
modes  are  successfully  applied  in  root  graft-  R00t  Grafting. 
ing,  but  splice  grafting  is  more  generally  in 
use.  In  root  grafting  fruit  trees,  the  best  stocks  for  the 
purpose  are  seedlings,  which  are  cut  off  at  the  collar 
and  grafts  inserted  in  one  or  the  other  of  these  modes, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  stock.  If  such  stocks  cannot 
be  got,  roots  of  thrifty  trees  may  be  employed,  but  they 
are  more  apt  to  produce  diseased  trees.  This  work  can 
be  performed  at  any  leisure  time  during  the  winter,  and 
when  the  winters  are  mild  and  open,  they  should  be  set 


m 


Fig.  91. 


220 


GAKDEXIXG    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


out  in  the  open  ground  at  once,  and  covered  with  soil 
about  an  inch  above  the  point  of  junction. 

In  colder  latitudes  they  are  packed  closely  in  small 
boxes  with  sandy  earth  among  the  roots,  and  kept  in  a 
cool  cellar  until  they  can  be  planted  in  spring.  In  root 
grafting,  either  waxed  cloth  or  twine 
is  used  to  hold  the  scions  in  place. 

In  grafting,  as  in  budding,  always 
have  sharp  instruments;  make  the 
cuts  clean  and  smooth;  bring  the  inner 
bark — that  is,  the  active  young  i>arts — 
of  stock  and  scion  in  close  contact  by 
a  permanent  pressure  of  the  stock 
upon  its  scion;  the  top  of  the  scion 
should  be  cut  off  next  to  a  bud,  aud 
there  should  be  a  bud  just  beneath  the 
shoulder  where  it  unites  with  the 
stock;  every  portion  of  the  wound 
should  be  perfectly  covered  with  the 
composition,  and  the  stock  and  scion 
must  correspond,  not  only  in  their  na- 
ture, but  in  their  habits  of  growth. 

Inarching,  or  Grafting  by  Ap- 
proach.—This  mode  is  practiced  with 
Camellias  and  Magnolias.  A  branch  is 
bent  and  partly  cut  through,  as  in  Figure  92,  and  the  heel 
thus  formed  is  slipped  into  a  slit  made  downward  in  the 
stock  to  receive  it;  the  parts  are  then  made  to  meet  as 
exactly  as  possible,  and  are  bound  with  bass  strings,  as 
in  Figure  93,  and  covered  with  grafting  clay,  or  with  the 
composition.  In  five  or  six  months  the  union  is  complete, 
and  the  inarched  plant  may  be  separated  from  its  parent, 
which  is  done  with  a  sharp  knife  so  as  to  leave  a  clean 
cut.  The  head  of  the  stock,  if  not  removed  before,  is  then 
cut  away,  and  the  plant  is  ready  for  removal. 


Fig.   92 — Inarching    or 
Grafting  by  Approach. 


BUDDING   AND   GKAJFTING. 


221 


There  are  several  other  modes  of  budding  and  grafting, 
but  the  above  are  most  useful  aud  commonly  practiced. 

The  advantages  of  these  operations  are  the  rapidity  with 
which  a  valuable  kind  may  be  propagated  which  will  not 
grow  from  seed  or  cuttings — trees  of  worthless  fruit  may 
be  changed  into  more  valuable  varieties;  seedlings  can 
be  brought  into  early  bearing;  foreign, 
tender  fruits  may  be  rendered  hardier  on 
hardy,  native  stocks;  a  kind  of  fruit  may 
be  grown  in  a  soil  not  congenial  to  it,  as 
the  pear  by  grafting  on  the  quince;  sev- 
eral varieties  of  fruit  may  be  grown  upon 
the  same  tree;  and,**finally,  by  grafting 
on  dwarf-growing  stocks  the  trees  may 
be  so  dwarfed  as  to  afford  many  ripening 
in  succession  within  the  limits  of  a  small 
garden. 

Experience  shows  that  the  graft  and 
stock  mutually  influence  each  other. 
The  effect  of  the  stock  upon  the  graft  in 
improving  its  product  is  evident  in  such  pears  as  suc- 
ceed on  the  quince,  their  size  and  flavor  being  much 
improved.  The  graft  in  turn  affects  the  stock,  increasing 
or  diminishing  its  vigor.  The  Newtown  Pippin  will 
roughen  the  bark  of  any  other  apple  stock.  A  Collins 
pear,  grafted  upon  the  branches  of  another  variety,  is 
verv  likely  to  cause  the  death  of  the  whole  tree. 


Fig.  93. 


2Z2  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

CHAPTER    XL 

PRUNING  AND   TRAINING. 

Pruning. — This  operation  is  generally  performed  more 
at  random  than  any  other  in  gardening,  yet  is  one  of  the 
most  important  and  most  delicate.  Not  even  a  twig 
should  be  removed  from  a  tree  without  some  definite 
object.  This  work  above  all  others  requires  care,  knowl- 
edge, and  judgment,  and  should  never  be  left  to  ignorant 
operators.  In  their  hands  the  results  can  hardly  fail  to  be 
injurious,  but  performed  by  those  who  base  their  practice 
on  the  laws  of  vegetation,  it  contributes  to  ensure  a  regu- 
lar production  of  beautiful  and  perfect  fruit,  and  still 
more  to  prolong  the  life  and  fruitfulness  of  trees. 

The  benefits  of  skillful  pruning,  as  stated  by  Du  Breuil, 
are: 

1.  It  permits  one  to  impose  upon  its  subject  a  form 
corresponding  with  the  place  it  is  designed  to  occupy. 
Thus  to  standard  fruit  trees  is  given  the  pyramidal  form, 
or  that  of  the  vase  Trees  thus  managed  produce  larger 
and  more  abundant  fruits  than  those  left  to  grow  at  ran- 
dom, and  occupy  less  space.  Trees  upon  an  espalier  or 
wall,  and  vines  upon  a  trellis,  are  made  to  develop  their 
wood  with  symmetry  and  regularity,  and  occupy  usefully 
the  whole  surface  they  were  designed  to  cover. 

2.  By  pruning,  all  the  main  branches  of  the  tree  are 
furnished  with  fruit-bearing  branches  duly  exposed  to  air 
and  light  in  their  whole  extent.  An  unpruned  peach  tree 
will  produce  fruit  only  at  the  extremity  of  each  branch, 
but  by  pruning,  all  parts  of  the  tree  are  made  fruitful. 

3.  By  pruning,  fructification  is  made  more  equal.  By 
suppressing  each  year  the  superabundant  flower-buds, 


PRUNING  AND    TRAINING.  223 

and  thinning  tlie  branches  themselves,  one  preserves  for 
the  formation  of  new  flower-buds  for  the  following  year 
the  sap  which  would  have  been  absorbed  by  the  parts 
removed. 

4.  Finally,  pruning  renders  the  fruit  larger,  and  of 
better  quality.  A  large  part  of  those  nourishing  fluids 
which  would  have  supplied  the  suppressed  parts  is 
turned  to  the  benefit  of  the  fruit  on  the  remaining 
branches. 

Lindley  adds  that  the  time  in  which  a  fruit  ripens  may 
be  changed  by  skillful  pruning.  If  raspberry  canes  are 
cut  down  to  three  eyes  in  the  spring,  a  late  summer  or 
autumn  crop  will  be  produced.  By  removing  the  flower- 
buds  of  remontant  roses,  fine  autumn  blooms  are  ob- 
tained. 

Time  for  Pruning. — Pruning  is  performed  at  two 
periods  during  the  year.  Winter  pruning  is  that  given  to 
trees  while  vegetation  is  in  repose,  and  summer  pruning 
includes  all  that  a  tree  or  plant  receives  in  its  stages  of 
active  growth. 

Winter  Pruning. — This  may  be  performed  at  the 
South  directly  after  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  and  in  mild 
weather  through  the  winter  months,  until  vegetation  is 
about  to  commence;  at  the  North,  from  the  time  the 
severe  frosts  are  over  until  the  sap  begins  to  move — that 
is,  in  February  and  March.  If  pruned  before  the  heavy 
frosts,  the  cut,  being  exposed  to  their  severity,  does  not 
heal  readily  and  the  terminal  bud  is  often  destroyed. 
Pruning  must  not  be  undertaken  while  the  branches  are 
frozen,  as  the  wood  cuts  with  great  difficulty,  and  the 
wounds  are  torn  and  commonly  heal  badly,  and  the  near- 
est bud  generally  perishes.  If  delayed  until  the  shoots 
begin  to  start,  all  the  sap  from  the  roots  that  has  been 
absorbed  by  the  parts  of  the  tree  cut  off  is  lost.  A  great 
many  of  the   expanding  leaf   and   flower-buds   wTill   be 


224  GABDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

broken  off,  and  finally  the  sap,  in  full  flow,  pours  from 
the  wounds  and  the  tree  is  greatly  weakened  thereby. 

Pruned  at  the  proper  season,  the  tree  throws  all  its 
force  upon  the  remaining  buds,  developing  those  which 
would  else  be  dormant.  Where,  however,  a  tree  is  too 
vigorous  to  fruit  well,  a  late  spring  pruning,  when  the 
shoots  begin  to  lengthen,  will  check  its  vigor  and  cause 
the  formation  of  fruit  buds. 

The  vine,  currant,  and  gooseberry  may  be  pruned  at 
any  time  between  the  suspension  of  growths  and  the  first 
flow  of  sap.  In  general,  it  is  best  to  prune  plants  in  the 
order  in  which  vegetation  commences;  first  apricots,  then 
peaches,  just  as  their  buds  begin  to  swell,  plums  and 
cherries,  then  pears  and  apples.  Stone  fruits  should  be 
lightly  pruned,  as  they  are  apt  to  be  injured  by  the  issue 
of  gum  from  the  wounds. 

Summer  Pruning. — Shoots  may  be  removed  at  any 
time,  if  the  tree  seems  to  be  throwing  its  strength  in  a 
wrong  direction.  This  is  better  accomplished  by  disbud- 
ding— that  is,  removing  those  buds  which  would  produce 
unnecessary  shoots,  or  pinching  the  extremities  of  those 
shoots  which  are  making  too  much  wood. 

Pinching,  or  removing  the  growing  point  with  the 
finger  and  thumb,  is  the  most  essential  operation  in  the 
summer  management,  both  of  fruit  trees  and  ornamental 
1  daiits.  The  tendency  of  the  sap  is  to  the  growing  points, 
and  especially  to  those  more  elevated  and  exposed  to  the 
light.  The  upper  buds,  if  the  tree  or  plant  is  near  to  and 
shaded  by  others,  are  the  only  ones  to  develop,  and,  con- 
sequently, it  shoots  upward  rapidly,  while  the  stem  is  not 
proportionally  developed,  and  few  side  branches  are 
thrown  out.  Such  a  tree  must  not  only  be  cut  back 
severely  at  the  winter  pruning  so  as  to  shorten  the  leader 
to  perhaps  one-third  of  its  growth,  but  it  needs  looking  to 
in  summer,  or  it  will  push  upward  as  strongly  as  before. 


PRUNING  AND   TRAINING.  225 

To  strengthen  its  side  branches,  then,  it  is  necessary  to 
pinch  in  early,  while  they  are  in  active  growth,  the  leader 
or  any  other  shoot  that  is  evidently  receiving  an  undue 
amount  of  sap.  This  operation  checks  the  How  of  sap  to 
that  point,  and  directs  it  to  where  it  is  more  needed. 
When  a  side  shoot  shows  a  disposition  to  outgrow  the 
leader,  the  defect  is  remedied  by  pinching,  with  no  loss 
of  wood  or  growth  to  the  tree.  Pyramidal  forms  can  only 
be  secured  in  this  way  by  summer  pinching,  keeping  the 
lower  limbs  always  the  longest.  In  the  same  way  early 
bearing  is  promoted,  for  the  check  given  to  the  growing 
point  concentrates  the  sap,  and,  unless  the  shoots  again 
start  into  growth,  it  is  likely  to  form  fruit  buds.  Bushy 
specimen  plants  in  the  greenhouse  and  flower  garden  are 
not  to  be  seen  in  plants  left  to  themselves.  The  stems 
are  soon  naked,  aud,  if  cut  back,  they  soon  grow  up  as 
bad  as  before.  If  the  leading  and  other  dominant  shoots 
are  pinched  back,  leaving  the  side  shoots  unchecked  until 
ripe,  when  they  may  be  cut  back  a  little  to  make  them 
branch,  they  will  be  as  healthy  and  full  of  bloom  as  those 
at  the  upper  part  of  the  plant.  Pinching  should  be  per- 
formed at  once  as  soon  as  a  shoot  shows  itself  out  of  pro- 
portion. Further  directions  as  to  the  summer  manage- 
ment of  particular  trees  and  plants  will  be  given  here- 
after. 

Implements. — The  implements  required  in  pruning  are 
the  common  pruning  knife,  a  small  saw  with  very  fine 
teeth,  a  socket  chisel  two  or  three  inches  wide,  with  a- 
long  handle  and  a  pair  each  of  large  pruning  shears, 
pruning  scissors,  and  pole  pruning  shears;  these  should 
divide  the  branch  with  a  clean,  smooth  cut,  and  not  bruise 
it  on  the  side  next  the  stem. 

Mope  of  Operating  upon  the  Branches. — They 
should  be  so  cut  that  they  will  heal  kindly.  If  it  was 
desired  to  cut  off  a  branch  as  at  Figure  94,  it  is  cut  as  near 

15 


226 


GARDEXIXG    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


to  the  bud  as  possible,  without  injury  to  it.  The  knife  is 
entered  directly  opposite  to  the  base  of  the  bud,  and 
comes  out  even  with  the  point  of  the  bud.  Iu  this  way 
the  bud  will  not  suffer,  and  the  cut  quickly  heals.  Iu 
Figure  95  the  cut  is  so  far  above  the  bud  that  the  shoot 
will  die  down  to  near  the  bud,  and  require  to  be  again 
cut  off  that  it  may  heal  over.  If  the  cut  is  made,  com- 
mencing too  far  below  the  bud,  as  at  Figure  96,  the  bud 

is  badly  nourished  and 
will  be  less  vigorous, 
and  perhaps  perish.  In 
cutting  off  a  branch  it 
should  not  be  cut  so 
close  to  the  stem  as  to 
wound  it,  nor  should  the 
cut  be  larger  than  the 
base  of  the  branch,  or  so 
long  as  to  leave  a  snag 
to  decay  slowly  for 
years,  if  indeed  it  does 
not  send  out  new  vig 
orous  shoots  again  re 
quiring  removal. 

Considered     mechani 


Fig.  94. 


Fig.  95. 


Fig.  96. 
Operating  on  Branches. 

cally,  the  great  art  is  to  make  a  clean,  smooth  cut,  so  as 
to  leave  the  bark  in  a  healthy  state  to  cover  the  wound, 
and  to  prune  so  near  a  bud  as  to  leave  no  dead  wood. 
Hence,  if  the  branch  be  removed  with  the  saw,  the  cut 
must  be  smoothed  over  with  the  knife.  In  cutting  off 
large  branches,  the  wound  should  be  covered  with  graft 
ing  wax,  or  painted  over  with  Mr.  Downing's  preparation 
of  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol,  in  order  to  exclude  the  air. 
General  Principles  of  Pruning. — The  secret  of 
pruning  judiciously  consists  in,  first,  "  Calculating  intelli 
gently  the  proportion  one  ought  to  establish  between  the 


PRUNING   AND   TRAINING.  227 

branches  with  fruit  and  those  with  none,  and  which  serve 
only  to  nourish  the  tree;  second,  in  establishing  an  equili- 
brium among  the  parts  of  the  tree,  so  that  neither  side- 
nor  its  leader  may  grow  out  of  proportion  so  as  to  weaken 
the  other  side  or  the  base  by  drawing  to  itself  all  the  sap." 

Pruning  is  most  commonly  intended  either  to  improve 
the  form  of  the  tree  by  directing  the  growth  from  one 
part  to  another;  to  renew  the  growth  of  stunted  trees; 
to  induce  or  diminish  fruitfulnessj  to  remove  diseased  or 
decaying  branches;  and  iu  cases  of  transplanting,  to 
proportion  the  head  to  the  roots. 

In  pruning  to  improve  the  form  of  the  tree,  whether  fruit 
trees,  or  ornamental  trees  in  pleasure  grounds,  the  object 
is  to  preserve  its  natural  shape,  so  that  it  may  be  an 
agreeable  object  on  the  lawn,  or  when  combined  with 
others  in  a  group.  Lawn  trees  should  never  have  the 
stems  trimmed  up  to  bare  poles,  but  the  branches  should 
proceed  from  near  the  ground,  so  that  when  covered  with 
foliage  they  will  nearly  sweep  the  surface,  and  be  one 
mass  of  green  from  the  base  to  the  top.  So  in  all  kinds 
of  fruit  trees,  the  branches  should  be  allowed  to  proceed 
from  the  trunk  about  a  foot  and  a  half  from  the  ground. 
Such  trunks  are  screened  from  our  burning  sun,  and  are 
much  more  healthy  and  fruitful  than  those  with  naked 
stems  five  or  six  feet  high.  Every  tree  growing  naturally 
has  its  trunk  sheltered  from  the  sun.  If  it  grow  in  the 
open  ground,  this  is  accomplished  by  its  own  branches, 
while  in  the  forest  all  the  trunks  are  sheltered  by  the 
canopy  of  foliage  above.  If  one  part  of  the  tree  is  dis- 
posed to  outgrow  another,  and  thus  destroy  the  balance, 
it  may  be  shortened  in  winter,  and  the  shoots  pinched  off 
the  next  summer,  until  the  sap  is  thrown  in  the  right 
direction  into  weaker  branches  that  were  left  entire,  and 
the  balance  is  restored.  When  it  is  desired  that  new 
shoots  of  a  branch  should  take  an  upright  direction,  prune 


228 


(iAK'DKMAO     FOR     THE     SOL'TJI. 


to  an  inside  bud.    If  you  wish  au  open,  spreading  top,  prune 

to  au  oitl.sidc  bud  of  the  branch.  If  the  branches  be  cut 
at  an  inside  bud,  as  at  A  (Figure  97),  the  growth  from  the 
upper  buds  will  be  as  in  Figure  98,  but  if  the  cut  at  an 
outside  bud,  B  (Figure  97),  the  new  branches  will  spread 
apart,  as  shown  in  Figure  99.  To  make  a  stem  grow  erect, 
in  the  annual  cutting  back  which  young  trees  require, 


Fig.  97.  Fig.  98.  Fig.  99. 

Pruning  to  Improve  Form. 

select  the  bud  intended  for  a  leader  on  opposite  sides 
each  successive  year,  and  the  tree  will  grow  upright.  Se- 
lecting it  two  or  three  years  on  the  same  side  will  cause 
the  trunk  to  incline  in  that  direction.  Symmetrical 
growth  is  not  only  agreable  to  the  eye,  but  it  assists  in 
maintaining  the  equilibrium  of  vegetation,  preventing 
the  sap  from  being  drawn  more  to  one  side  than  the  other. 
Pruning  to  Renew  the  Growth. — When  a  tree  has 


PRUNING   AXD   TRAILING.  'A'AM 

stopped  growing,  remaining  stationary,  it  often  happens 
that  if  it  is  cut  back  in  winter  to  a  few  buds,  the  whole 
force  of  the  sap  being  made  to  act  on  these  few  buds, 
vigorous  young  shoots  will  be  produced,  and,  these  send- 
ing down  new  woody  matter  to  the  stem,  new  roots  are 
formed,  and  the  whole  tree  is  renewed.  In  young  trees 
where  the  growth  has  not  been  checked,  an  annual  cut- 
ting back  of  the  new  growth  is  likewise  necessary,  and 
will  strengthen  the  branches  on  the  lower  parts  of  the 
tree,  and  thicken  up  the  trunk,  enabling  it  to  maintain  an 
erect  position. 

Pruning  to  Reduce  or  Diminish  Fruitfulness. — 
Ever}- thing  that  is  favorable  to  rapid,  vigorous  growth,  is 
generally  unfavorable  to  the  immediate  production  of 
fruit.  Hence  prunning,  to  induce  fruitfulness,  is  per- 
formed after  vegetation  has  commenced.  If  a  tree  be 
severely  pruned  immediately  after  its  leaves  have  put 
forth,  it  is  so  checked  as  to  be  unable  to  make  a  vigorous 
growth  the  same  season,  the  circulation  of  the  sap  is 
impeded,  and  the  young  shoots  that  would  have  made 
wood  branches,  had  the  growth  been  unchecked,  will  be- 
come fruit  spurs.  Pinching  the  extremities  is,  however, 
the  usual  mode  of  pruning  to  induce  fruitfulness.  The 
same  result  is  produced  by  pruning  the  roots,  which  also 
lessens  the  dimensions  the  trees  would  otherwise  obtain, 
by  diminishing  the  quantity  of  food  they  receive  from 
the  soil. 

Pruning  at  Transplanting. — At  this  time  all  bruised 
and  broken  roots  and  branches  should  be  removed  with  a 
sharp  knife.  When  trees  are  taken  from  the  ground,  a 
greater  or  less  portion  of  the  roots  is  destroyed  or  injured, 
and  the  natural  balance  between  the  root  and  top  is  de- 
stroyed, and  the  tree  in  this  condition  will  either  die  or 
make  a  slow  growth.  In  England,  the  climate  is  so  moist 
that  trees    mav  be  removed    and    leave    nearlv  all  the 


230  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

branches  as  they  were;  but  under  the  hot  suns  and  strong 
winds  of  an  American  climate,  a  vigorous  shortening  in  is 
requisite. 

As  horticultural  theorists  strongly  insisted  that  pruning 
at  transplanting  was  injurious,  J.  J.  Thomas,  Esq.,  author 
of  the  Fruit  Culturist,  has  settled  the  question  by  direct 
experiment.  Of  six  apricots,  two  years  from  the  bud, 
about  seven  feet  high,  five  were  cut  back  and  one  left 
uncut  at  transplanting.  The  most  vigorous  of  the  five 
made  21  shoots,  from  6  to  21  inches  long.  The  weakest 
had  9  shoots  G  to  7  inches  long,  not  counting  the  shoots 
less  than  G  inches  in  length.  The  impruned  tree  had  on 
7  shoots,  all  less  than  2  inches,  and  not  one-twentieth 
part  of  the  amount  of  foliage  to  be  found  on  other  trees. 
Experiments  upon  cherry  trees,  planted  at  the  same  time, 
equally  showed  the  necessity  of  priming  at  transplanting. 
Trees  unpruned  when  transplanted  are  so  checked  that 
it  requires  years  to  restore  them.  In  a  southern  climate 
they  must  be  more  severely  cut  back,  when  planted  out, 
than  in  that  of  Macedon,  New  York,  where  the  experi- 
ments were  made. 

It  matters  very  little  how  closely  we  prune  the  top  of 
the  trees;  only  have  good  roots,  and  a  single  season's 
growth  will  restore  the  balance.  Do  not  leave  more  than 
one  or  two  buds  to  a  branch  of  the  previous  year's  growth 
if  the  tree  is  of  much  size  at  the  time  of  transplanting. 
Coniferous  trees,  as  the  pines,  firs,  etc.,  are  exceptions,  for 
if  cut  back  at  planting,  the  leader  being  lost,  the  form  of 
the  tree  is  difficult  to  restore.  Hence  those  only  of  this 
class  should  be  planted  which  have  been  taken  up  and 
reset  annually  in  the  nursery  until  a  mass  of  fibrous 
roots  has  been  formed.  These  must  be  protected  from  the 
air  until  the  tree  is  reset.  Broad-leaved  evergreens,  like 
English  laurels,  evergreen  oaks,  may  be  cut  back  and  a 
portion  of  the  leaves  removed  to  lessen  evaporation,  with 


PRUNING   AND   TRAINING.  231 

the  same  advantage  as  deciduous  trees.  Indeed,  many  of 
the  broad-leaved  evergreens,  taken  from  the  woods,  can- 
not be  transplanted  with  any  success,  unless  nearly  all 
the  top  is  removed.  Nursery-raised  trees  are  taken  up 
and  reset  so  often  that  they  can  be  replanted  safely  with- 
out cutting  in  so  severely. 

M.  Du  Breuil,  from  whose  work  we  have  already  drawn, 
bases  the  whole  theory  of  pruning  fruit  trees  upon  the 
following  six  general  principles,  which,  in  giving,  we  con- 
dense: 

I. — The  vigor  of  a  tree  subjected  to  pruning  depends  in  a 
great  measure  on  the  equal  distribution  of  sap  in  all  its 
branches.    That  this  equal  distribution  may  take  place — 

1.  Prune  the  branches  of  the  most  vigorous  parts  very  short, 
and  those  of  the  weak  parts  long.  The  feeble  parts  being- 
pruned  long,  present  a  great  number  of  buds  and  a  large 
surface  of  leaves,  which  attract  the  sap,  and  produce 
vigorous  growth;  while  the  vigorous  parts  being  pruned 
short  and  the  surface  of  leaves  diminished,  growth  in 
those  parts  is  also  diminished. 

2.  Leave  a  large  quantity  of  fruit  on  the  strong  part  and 
remove  the  whole  or  the  greater  part  from  the  feeble.  The  sap 
which  arrives  in  the  strong  part  will  be  appropriated  by 
the  fruit,  and  the  wood  there  will  make  little  growth, 
while  the  feeble  parts  being  deprived  of  fruit,  the  sap 
will  be  appropriated  by  the  growing  parts  and  they  will 
increase  in  size  and  strength. 

3.  Bend  the  strong  parts  and  keep  the  weak  erect.  The 
more  erect  the  branches  are,  the  greater  will  be  the  flow 
of  sap  and  consequent  growth;  hence,  the  balance  may 
be  restored  by  bending  down  those  disposed  to  make  too 
much  growth. 

4.  Remove  from  the  vigorous  parts  the  superfluous  shoots 
as  early  in  the  season  as  possible,  and  from  the  feeble  parts  as 
late  as  possible.    The  fewer  the  young  shoots  are  in  num- 


232  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

ber,  the  fewer  the  leaves,  and  the  less  the  sap  is  attracted 
there;  but  leaving  these  standing  on  the  feeble  parts, 
these  leaves  attract  the  sap  and  induce  vigorous  growth. 

5.  Pinch  early  the  soft  extremities  of  the  shoots  on  the 
vigorous  parts,  and  as  late  as  possible  on  the  feeble  parts, 
excepting  always  any  shoots  which  may  be  too  vigorous  for 
their  position.  By  this  practice  the  flow  of  sap  to  that 
point  is  checked  and  turned  to  the  growing  points  that 
have  not  been  pinched. 

6.  In  training,  lay  in  the  strong  shoots  on  the  trellis  early 
and  leave  the  feeble  parts  loose  as  long  as  possible.  Laying 
in  the  strong  shoots  obstructs  in  them  the  circulation, 
and  favors  the  weak  parts  which  are  at  liberty.  Giving 
also  the  feeble  parts  the  benefit  of  the  light  in  training, 
and  confining  the  strong  parts  more  in  the  shade,  restores 
a  balance. 

II. — The  sap  acts  with  greater  force  and  produces  more 
rigorous  growth  on  a  branch  short  pruned  than  on  one  long 
pruned.  The  whole  sap  of  the  branch  acting  on  two  buds 
must  produce  greater  development  of  wood  on  them  than 
if  divided  among  fifteen  or  twenty.  Hence,  to  produce 
wood  branches,  we  prune  short,  or  if  fruit  branches,  we 
prune  long,  because  slender  and  feeble  shoots  are  more 
disposed  to  fruit.  Hence,  also,  trees  that  are  enfeebled 
by  over-bearing  should  for  a  year  or  two  be  pruned  short, 
until  the  balance  is  restored. 

III. — The  sap  tending  always  to  I  he  extremities  of  I  he  shoots 
causes  the  terminal  bud  to  push  with  greater  rigor  than  the 
laterals.  When  we  wish  a  prolongation  of  a  stem,  we 
should  prune  to  a  vigorous  wood  bud,  and  leave  no  pro- 
duction that  can  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  sap  on  it. 

IV. — The  more  the  sap  is  obstructed  in  its  circulation,  the 
more  likely  it  will  be  to  produce  fruit  buds.  Sap,  circulating 
slowly,  is  subjected  to  a  more  complete  elaboration  in  the 
tissues  of  the  tree,  and  becomes  better  adapted  to  form 


PRUNING  AND   TRAINING.  233 

fruit  buds.  If  we  wish  a  branch  to  bear  fruit,  we  can 
obstruct  the  circulation  of  the  sap  by  bending  or  making 
incisions  around  the  branch,  or  if  it  is  wished  to  change 
a  fruit  into  a  wood-branch,  raise  it  into  a  vertical  posi- 
tion and  prune  it  to  two  or  three  buds,  on  which  we  con- 
centrate the  action  of  the  sap  and  induce  them  to  grow 
vigorously. 

Y. — The  leaves  .scree  to  prepare  the  sap  absorbed  by  the  roots 
for  the  nourishment  of  the  tree,  and  aid  in  the  formation  of 
buds  on  the  shoots.  All  trees,  therefore,  deprived  of  their 
leaves,  are  liable  to  perish.  Hence,  the  leaves  should 
never  be  removed  from  a  tree  under  the  pretext  of  aiding 
the  growth,  or  ripening  the  fruit,  as,  deprived  of  leaves, 
trees  cannot  grow,  neither  can  their  fruit  mature. 

VI. — When  the  hints  of  an//  shoot  or  branch  do  not  develop 
before  the  age  of  tiro  years  they  can  be  forced  into  activity  out// 
by  a  very  close  pruning,  and  in  some  cases,  as  the  peach,  even 
this  will  fait.  ITence,  the  main  branches  should  be  trim- 
med so  as  to  secure  a  development  of  their  successive  sec- 
tions, and  so  shortened  in  as  not  to  allow  the  production 
of  long,  naked  stems,  leaving  the  interior  of  the  tree  bare 
of  shoots,  and  consequently  unproductive. 

In  order  to  induce  trees  to  grow  in  any  particular  form, 
it  is  not  so  much  labor  as  continued  attention  that  is 
required.  A  thorough  pruning  once  a  year  will  not  pro- 
duce the  desired  effect,  but  a  little  attention  two  or  three 
times  a  week  during  the  growing  season  will  be  sufficient 
to  examine  every  shoot  in  an  acre  of  garden  trees,  and  the 
eye  is  very  soon  trained  so  as  to  detect  at  a  glance  the 
shoots  that  require  attention.  (Du  Breuil,  Lindley, 
Barry,  etc.) 

Training. — The  principal  objects  of  training  are  to 
render  plants  more  productive  of  fruits  and  flowers  than 
if  left  to  grow  voluntarily,  also  to  form  screens  of  various 
running  plants  to  keep  any  unsightly  object  from  view. 


234  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

The  points  to  be  attended  to  are  to  entirely  cover  the 
wall  or  trellis,  bending  the  branches  backwards  and  for- 
wards so  as  to  form  numerous  deposits  of  returning  sap, 
and  ensure  the  full  exposure  of  the  fruit-bearing  branches 
to  the  sun  and  air.  The  long  shoots  are  shortened  or 
pinched  to  make  them  throw  outside  branches,  with 
which  the  trellis  is  covered,  without  permitting  them  to 
cross  each  other.  Training  flowering  plants  is  necessary 
that  they  may  appear  in  elegant  and  symmetrical  form. 
It  should  be  regulated  by  a  knowledge  of  their  habits  of 
growth  and  consists  principally  in  checking  over-luxu- 
riance of  growth  and  tying  them  to  stakes  or  frames. 
Directions  for  training  the  grape,  etc.,  will  be  given  here- 
after. 


TRANSPLANTING.  235 

CHAPTER  XII. 

TRANSPLANTING. 

In  the  operation  of  transplanting,  the  main  points  to  be 
regarded  are  the  proper  preparation  of  the  soil  for  re- 
ceiving the  plant;  care  in  taking  it  up  so  as  to  avoid 
injury  to  the  small,  fibrous  roots;  setting  it  firmly  so  that 
its  roots  may  take  a  secure  hold  of  the  soil;  planting  with 
as  little  delay  as  possible;  and,  lastly,  maintaining  the 
balance  as  far  as  practicable  between  the  top  of  the  plant 
and  its  roots,  so  that  the  former  may  not  lose  more  by 
evaporation  than  the  roots  absorb,  until  again  estab- 
lished. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — Plants,  when  removed, 
need  a  freshly  dug  soil  which  affords  a  moist  situation  in 
which  the  delicate  fibers  may  be  emitted,  and  therein 
quickly  establish  themselves.  If  also  well  drained  and 
trenched,  the  effect  upon  present  and  subsequent  growth 
is  very  decided:  a  tree  or  vine  thriving  much  better  in 
such  a  situation  than  if  the  roots  are  put  into  a  hole  with 
none  of  the  surrounding  soil  loosened.  The  soil  ought 
also  to  be  enriched  with  fine  manure,  but  no  coarse,  unfer- 
mented  manures  should  be  applied  where  they  will  come 
in  contact  with  the  roots.  When  the  ground  is  in  a  suit- 
able condition,  holes  should  be  dug  for  the  reception  of 
the  roots  of  the  plants.  These  had  better  be  made  square 
than  round,  as  a  large  hole  in  that  form  can  be  sooner 
made.  The  diameter  should  be  such  that  it  will  receive 
all  the  roots  when  fully  extended.  The  holes  should  be 
made  too  large  rather  than  too  small.  In  digging  the 
holes,  throw  out  the  best  soil  on  one  side  and  the  poor 
on  the  opposite.  If  the  ground  has  been  prepared  deeply, 
the  holes  may  be  made  just  deep  enough  to  receive  the 


236  GARDEXIXG    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

roots,  which,  iii  some  cases,  are  spindle-shaped  and  extend 
downwards  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  in  others  run 
along  the  surface.  For  most  plants  the  hole  should  be 
deeper  at  the  sides  than  at  the  center,  leaving'  the  bottom 
convex  and  not  basin-shaped.  It  should  have  the  bottom 
soil  loosened,  and  in  dry  weather  be  watered,  but  the 
water  should  be  allowed  to  subside  so  as  to  be  moist,  not 
wet,  at  the  time  of  planting.  It  should  be  left  of  such 
depth  in  all  good  soils,  that  the  neck  of  the  plant  may 
be  as  near  the  surface  as  before,  or  but  a  trifle  above; 
but  in  clayey  soils,  ill  drained,  let  it  be  somewhat  above 
on  a  broad,  slightly  elevated  mound. 

Taking  up  the  Plants. — In  this  operation  avoid  injury 
to  the  roots;  with  the  utmost  care  they  will  be  mutilated. 
A  little  attention  will  save  a  year's  growth  to  a  tree.  The 
roots  are  of  two  kinds,  the  main  roots  which  support  the 
plant  in  the  earth,  and  the  small  branching  or  tibrous 
roots,  the  fresh  tips  and  numerous  fibrils  or  root  hairs  of 
which  supply  it  with  nourishment.  These  parts  are  of 
great  delicacy,  and  if  injured  or  broken  off,  the  plant 
must  throw  out  others,  or  perish  for  want  of  nourishment. 
These  fibrous  roots  are  the  ones  most  likely  to  be  de- 
stroyed or  injured  in  taking  up,  and  in  replanting  to  be 
squeezed  between  stones  and  hard  lumps  of  earth,  so  that 
the  circulation  is  weakly  and  imperfectly  carried  on 
through  diseased  and  defective  organs.  The  roots  of  a 
tree,  therefore,  when  transplanted,  must  be  examined, 
and  all  those  injured  and  all  the  small  fibrous  extremities 
in  bad  condition  should  be  cut  back  with  a  sharp  knife 
to  the  sound  parts  before  it  is  reset,  in  order  to  force  the 
root  to  throw  out  new  fibers,  which,  in  many  plants,  are 
produced  in  great  abundance  from  where  a  root  has  been 
cut  back  with  a  clean  cut.  Roots,  matted  with  fibers, 
should  be  disentangled  and  soil  introduced  among  them 
in  planting,  so  as  to  separate  them  from  each  other. 


TRANSPLANTING.  237 

While  the  plant  is  out  of  the  ground,  its  roots  should 
be  protected  from  exposure  to  the  air,  and,  if  not  planted 
immediately,  should  be  covered  with  earth.  Many  trees 
are  ruined  by  lying  out  exposed  to  the  sun  for  hours  while 
holes  are  being  dug  to  receive  them.  Before  the  tree  is 
reset,  the  top  also  should  receive  the  necessary  pruning. 

Replanting. — After  the  holes  are  ready  and  the  tree 
prepared,  its  roots  should  be  laid  upon  the  convex  surface 
to  see  if  the  hole  is  of  the  proper  depth,  which  may  be 
judged  by  the  eye,  or  more  exactly  by  laying  a  rod  across 
the  hole  close  to  the  stem,  resting  on  the  level  ground  on 
each  side.  If  the  neck  of  the  plant  is  too  high  or  too 
low,  make  the  necessary  alteration,  bringing  the  bottom 
to  the  proper  height,  and  convex  as  before.  Hold  the  tree 
lightly — if  it  is  in  the  same  aspect  as  before,  in  respect 
to  the  points  of  the  compass,  it  certainly  can  do  it  no 
harm,  and  many  cultivators  think  it  important.  Let  the 
roots  be  nicely  spread  over  this  convex  surface,  training 
out  the  leading  roots  at  distances  as  near  equal  as  pos- 
sible, not  bundling  the  small  roots  together,  but  sepa- 
rating them  with  particles  of  fine  soil.  Then,  holding  the 
stem  firmly  and  erect,  save  a  slight  inclination  towards 
the  side  from  which  the  heaviest  gales  or  most  constant 
winds  are  expected,  throw  the  finest,  lightest  soil,  from 
that  reserved  by  itself,  down  near  the  stem,  letting  it  fall 
down  towards  the  extremities  of  the  roots,  and  introduce 
it  carefully  with  the  hand  among  the  roots.  Having  thus 
covered  the  lower  roots,  those  above  should  also  be  ad- 
justed and  covered  with  the  same  care,  and  when  all  are 
well  covered,  water  may  be  given  with  advantage,  unless 
the  soil  and  weather  are  moist.  If  not  watered,  when  the 
roots  are  well  covered,  the  earth  should  be  moderately 
pressed  upon  them  by  treading  the  soil  (being  careful  not 
to  injure  them),  if  the  ground  is  light  and  friable,  but 
by  no  means  if  wet.    After  watering  or  treading,  the  re- 


238  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

niaining  soil  should  be  put  on,  leaving  the  collar  of  the 
plant  covered  a  very  little  deeper  than  before  (in  the  case 
of  trees  some  two  inches),  and  the  looser  and  drier  this 
surface  soil  is  the  better  will  it  resist  drought.  If  the 
body  of  the  tree  is  held  firm  by  tying  it  to  a  stake,  it  will 
prevent  the  loosening  of  the  roots  by  the  action  of  the 
wind  upon  the  tops. 

Checking  undue  Evaporation  until  the  Plant  is 
Established. — The  maintaining  the  balance  between 
the  top  and  root  of  the  plant  is  best  secured  by  perform- 
ing the  whole  operation  at  the  proper  season,  in  mild, 
moist  weather,  and  with  as  much  dispatch  as  possible, 
meanwhile  protecting  the  roots  from  the  air  and  sun;  by 
pruning  severely  the  tops  of  plants  that  admit  the  opera- 
tion, thus  lessening  the  evaporating  surface;  and  by 
guarding  with  the  greater  care  from  injury  the  roots  of 
conifers  and  other  plants  that  do  not.  Removing  a  large 
portion  of  the  leaves  will  likewise  diminish  the  evapo- 
rating surface,  and  is  very  necessary  in  planting  hollies 
and  evergreen  oaks.  Shade  from  the  sun  those  plants 
that  require  such  protection  (and  nearly  all  are  thus 
benefited),  and  water  to  supply  the  absorbing  extremities 
of  the  roots  with  an  abundance  of  food,  that  the  increased 
quantity  imbibed  by  each  may,  in  some  degree,  make  up 
for  their  diminished  number.  Mulching  the  surface  thinly 
after  a  rain  is  also  useful  in  preventing  undue  loss  of 
moisture  from  the  soil. 

Preparation  of  Trees  for  Transplanting. — As  a 
rule,  there  is  little  gained  by  planting  out  large  trees. 
Small  trees,  as  Downing  remarks,  can  be  taken  up  with  a 
system  of  roots  and  branches  entire,  while  the  older  and 
larger  tree,  losing  a  part  of  its  roots,  requires  years  to 
resume  its  former  vigor.  Trees,  transplanted  while  small, 
will  prove  more  healthy,  vigorous,  and  enduring;  but 
sometimes,  for  immediate  effect,  or  to  preserve  a  favorite 


TRANSPLANTING.  239 

tree,  it  is  necessary  to  transplant  it  when  of  larger  size. 
This  is  done  by  shortening  in  the  leading  roots  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  trunk,  varying  with  the  size  of  the  tree 
to  be  operated  upon.  A  circular  trench  is  dug  in  spring 
or  before  midsummer  around  the  whole  mass  of  roots, 
partially  undermining  them  and  cutting  off  all  that  ex- 
tend into  the  trench,  which  is  dug  at  such  a  distance  from 
the  tree  that  it  encloses  a  sufficient  ball  of  roots;  the 
trench  may  be  filled  with  poor  earth,  or  covered  with 
plank.  The  tree  will  be  checked  somewhat,  and  will  fill 
the  ball  around  it  with  a  mass  of  fibrous  roots,  and  in  the 
proper  season  tan  be  moved  with  safety.  Many  trees 
naturally  tap-rooted,  and  evergreens  difficult  to  trans- 
plant, are,  by  being  transplanted  annually  or  biennially 
from  their  seedling  state,  compelled  to  throw  out  a  mass 
of  fibrous  roots,  retaining  among  them  a  ball  of  earth, 
and  are  thus  ready  to  be  moved  at  any  time  without 
danger. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  plant  fruit  trees  before  the 
leaves  naturally  fall,  in  seasons  when  autumn  frosts  are 
unusually  late.  A  week  or  two  before  the  trees  are  to  be 
taken  up,  pluck  from  them  every  leaf,  and  allow  them  to 
remain  and  ripen  their  wood.  After  this  time  they  can 
be  taken  up,  packed,  and  sent  safely  long  distances  with- 
out shrivelling.  Meanwhile  the  ground  should  be  pre- 
pared, the  holes  made,  and,  after  pruning,  plant  them  out, 
giving  them  a  good  watering  before  the  last  soil  is  thrown 
in.  In  this  way,  where  much  planting  is  to  be  done,  a 
month's  time  in  autumn  is  gained. 

Transplanting  Herbaceous  Plants. — Most  of  these 
are  easily  transplanted  as  soon  as  they  have  done  flower- 
ing, or  before  they  begin  to  grow  in  the  spring.  For 
annuals,  when  the  season  is  somewhat  advanced,  a  damp, 
cloudy  day,  just  before  or  just  after  a  shower,  or  in  the 
evening,  is  the  proper  time  for  the  operation.     Imme- 


240  GARDEJsIXG    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

diately  after  a  very  heavy  rain  is  not  the  best  season,  as 
the  soil,  if  moved  while  too  wet,  forms  a  crust  about  the 
plant.  In  the  case  of  choice  young  plants,  they  should 
be  taken  up  with  a  trowel,  removing  them  with  a  ball 
of  earth,  and  the  plant  will  hardly  be  checked  in  its 
growth.  Larger  plants  may  be  taken  up  in  the  same  way 
with  the  transplanter  or  spade.  Those  not  removed  with 
a  ball,  may  be  grouted  by  mixing  up  a  quantity  of  rich 
loam  in  water  to  a  semi-fluid  state,  and  inserting  the  roots 
therein.  Plants  that  suffer  little  in  taking  up,  like  the 
cabbage,  may  have  a  hole  made  in  the  earth  with  a  dibble 
and  the  plant  inserted  therein,  when  the  dibble  is  again 
inserted  a  little  obliquely  near  the  stem,  and  the  earth 
pushed  up  close  to  the  root.  All  tap-rooted  plants  are 
moved  with  difficulty.  Many  herbaceous  plants — sweet- 
potato  slips,  for  instance — can  be  safely  set  out  in  dry 
weather  in  freshly  moved  soil,  by  making  a  hole  for  their 
reception,  setting  the  plants  therein,  and  just  covering 
the  roots  with  fine  soil;  then  fill  the  hole  with  water  about 
the  roots  and  cover  them  at  the  surface  with  dry  soil,  to 
retain  the  moisture  and  keep  the  surface  from  baking. 
The  operation  must  be  performed  in  the  evening. 

All  valuable  herbaceous  plants  should  be  protected 
with  sun  shades  or  plant  protectors,  when  just  planted,  if 
the  sun  comes  out  hot. 


MULCHING,  SHADING,  AND  WATERING.  241 

CHAPTER   XIII. 

MULCHING,   SHADING,   AND   WATERING. 

Mulching. — Mulching  is  placing  litter  of  various 
kinds,  as  leaves,  pine  straw,  or  strawy  manure,  upon  the 
surface  soil  over  the  roots  of  plants  and  shrubs.  If  leaves 
are  used,  a  little  earth  may  be  required  to  keep  them  in 
place.  Mulching  is  used  as  well  to  prevent  moisture  from 
evaporating  from  the  soil  in  summer,  as  to  prevent  frost 
from  penetrating  to  the  roots  in  winter.  In  summer  a 
mulch  is  usually  applied  to  trees  and  shrubs  newly  trans- 
planted, and  to  herbaceous  plants  that  are  impatient  of 
heat  about  the  roots.  Irish  potatoes,  mulched,  produce 
more  abundantly,  and  are  of  better  quality.  Strawber- 
ries, thinly  mulched,  with  the  crown  uncovered,  are  much 
more  productive  and  continue  longer  in  fruit.  Rhubarb 
and  other  plants,  requiring  a  cool  soil,  can  thus  be  more 
easily  raised;  and  so  with  many  other  crops.  Summer 
mulching  should  be  applied  directly  after  a  rain,  that  the 
moisture  in  the  soil  may  be  retained.  It  should  not  be 
applied  to  potatoes  or  other  tender  plants  until  the  dan- 
ger of  frost  is  over,  as  the  increased  evaporation  from 
damp  mulch  will  produce  a  white  frost  when  there  is 
none  or  little  elsewhere  formed.  Fruit  trees,  by  having 
their  roots  mulched,  are  kept  in  better  health  and  vigor. 
Mulching  not  only  wards  off  drought,  but,  in  this  way,  by 
keeping  the  ground  moist,  and  by  the  decay  of  the  mulch- 
ing substance,  a  good  deal  of  food  is  conveyed  to  the 
plants.  Some  authors  are  of  the  opinion  that  ground  will 
become  continually  richer  by  being  shaded.  But  the 
great  benefit  of  mulching  is  that  a  steady  permanency  of 
moisture  is  retained,  in  spite  of  adverse  circumstances, 
and  without  stagnation.     In  general,  the  coat  of  litter 

16 


24:-2 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


for  mulching  must  be  thin,  that  the  rain  may  not  be  pre- 
vented from  reaching  the  roots  of  plants. 

Many  plants,  nearly  hardy,  can  be  kept  through  the 
winter  safely  by  a  coat  of  dry  litter  over  the  roots,  and 
especially  the  crown  of  the  plant,  to  turn  off  a  portion  of 
the  rain  and  to  keep  frost  from  penetrating  to  their  roots. 
Verbenas,  which  would  perish  without  this  protection, 
are  often  kept  over  safely  under  a  cover  of  two  or  three 
inches  of  leaves.  So  of  other  plants,  where  the  object  is 
to  protect  the  root  and  crown,  but  not  the  foliage.  Mulch- 
ing has  the  disadvantage  of  being  untidy  in  appearance, 
and  of  affording  shelter  to  insects  and  mice,  and  damage 
also  may  occur  from  its  being  carelessly  set  on  fire  from 
;i  cigar,  or  in  cleaning  up  the  garden,  thus  destroying  the 
plants  it  was  intended  to  protect. 

Shading. — In  all  glass  structures  during  the  warmer 
portion  of  the  year,  some  provision  must  be  made  for 
shading.  This  may  be  done  by  thin  sheeting,  but  as  this 
is  expensive  from  its  rapid  decay,  it  is  usual  to  whitewash 
the  glass  externally  as  often  as  may  be  necessary.  The 
autumn  raius  will  soon  wash  it  off  when  the  season  comes 
in  which  more  light  and  heat  are  desirable.  The  lime  of 
the  whitewash,  however,  soon  loosens  the  putty,  so  that 
a  preparation  of  thin  flour  sizing,  thickened  with  a  little 
pipe  clay,  will  be  found  better,  though  not  as  easy  to 
remove.  Where  a  glass  is  not  needed,  as  for  keeping 
camellias,  and  other  plants,  in  pots  through  the  summer, 
a  sort  of  lattice,  made  by  nailing  laths  upon  a  light,  ob- 
long frame  made  for  the  purpose  will  be  found  useful. 
Laths  can  also  be  tied  together  with  coarse  twine,  being 
separated  by  one  or  more  knots,  as  greater  or  less  dis- 
tance is  desired.  Mats  and  old  salt  and  coffee  sacks  are 
often  used,  but  they  exclude  too  much  light,  and  are  best 
employed  to  prevent  radiation,  and  thus  keep  out  frost  in 
winter. 


MULCHING,  SHADING,  AND  WATERING.  243 

Water  is  beneficial  to  plants  as  a  vehicle  for  conveying 
all  soluble  matters  which  form  the  food  of  plants, 
whether  they  be  animal,  vegetable,  gaseous,  or  earthy. 

Other  elements  being  present  in  sufficient  quantity,  the 
growth  and  health  of  a  plant  will  be  more  or  less  satisfac- 
tory in  proportion  as  it  is  or  is  not  supplied  with  all  the 
water  it  can  consume.  The  action  of  water  is  not,  how- 
ever, always  beneficial.  Injudiciously  applied,  it  destroys 
more  plants  than  almost  any  other  item  of  mismanage- 
ment. In  excess,  it  is  always  injurious.  It  fills  the  spaces 
in  the  soil  which  would  otherwise  be  filled  with  air,  and 
plants  are  choked  and  perish  for  want  of  this  indispen- 
sable element.  A  superabundance  of  water,  for  a  time, 
increases  the  growth  of  foliage  and  renders  it  tender  and 
succulent;  hence  a  good  supply  thereof  is  needful  to 
plants,  the  leaves  of  which  are  eaten,  as  lettuce  and 
spinach. 

But  by  this  excess  the  production  of  flowers  and  fruits 
is  delayed.  The  odor  of  the  former  and  the  flavor  of  the 
latter  are  weakened  and  impaired.  The  size  of  the  fruit 
is  increased  by  abundance  of  water,  and  without  it  the 
strawberry,  for  instance,  will  not  swell;  but  the  increased 
size,  unless  it  ripens  in  a  bright  atmosphere,,  or  the  quan- 
tity of  water  is  diminished  as  the  fruit  ripens,  is  partly 
at  the  expense  of  flavor.  Fruit  is  not  only  impaired  in 
quality,  but  is  very  liable  to  crack  or  burst  from  excess 
of  moisture,  as  the  plum,  grape,  or  stanwix  nectarine 
often  do,  or  rot  upon  the  tree  while  still  immature,  as  the 
peach,  plum,  etc. 

An  excess  of  water  softens  the  tissues  of  plants,  and 
renders  them  much  more  liable  to  injury  by  frost.  A  frost 
directly  after  warm  and  abundant  rains,  when  plants  are 
full  of  sap,  is  much  more  fatal  than  the  same  temperature 
in  dry  weather. 

The  temperature  of  the  soil,  if  wet,  is  greatly  lowered, 


244  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

and  its  capacity  for  heat  diminishes.  The  constant  evapo- 
ration from  wet  soil  so  lowers  the  temperature  of  the 
adjacent  stratum  of  air,  that  frosts  occur  when  there  are 
none  on  dryer  soils.  The  constant  dampness  of  the  atmos- 
phere, produced  by  excess  of  water  in  the  soil,  diminishes 
evaporation  from  the  leaves  of  plants,  and  hence  renders 
the  process  of  assimilation  slower,  and  less  food  is  taken 
up  by  the  roots.  By  diminishing  the  absorption  of  car-' 
bonic  acid,  it  lessens  the  atmospheric  supply  of  food.  Jt 
creates  a  tendency  in  the  organs  of  plants  to  vary  from 
the  normal  type  of  growth,  changing  the  flowers,  for  in- 
stance, into  green  leaves  and  ill-formed  shoots. 

•Succulent  plants,  those  with  fleshy  roots,  and  those 
with  leaves  that  appear  dry,  and  transpire  but  little,  and 
in  which  vegetation  proceeds  slowly,  are  most  subject 
to  injury  from  excess  of  water.  Plants  growing  in  a  clear 
light  are  less  endangered  by  an  over  supply  than  if  grow- 
ing in  a  shaded  situation,  as  they  can  both  assimilate  and 
perspire  more.  Plants  in  pots  are  most  likely  to  be  in- 
jured by  injudicious  watering,  at  times  being  drenched 
with  too  much,  and  at  others  allowed  to  become  too  dry. 

Where  water  exists  in  excess,  it  must  be  removed  by 
drainage.  This  is  indispensable  in  pot  culture.  It  is  par- 
ticularly to  be  attended  to  in  the  case  of  plants  which  are 
to  be  kept  through  the  winter  in  green-houses  or  pits. 

The  quantity  of  water  that  plants  require  varies  with 
the  species  of  plant  and  with  its  condition,  whether  in  a 
state  of  growth  or  repose.  A  plant  cultivated  for  its 
leaves  requires  more  water  than  if  grown  for  its  flowers, 
and  still  less  is  needed  if  grown  for  its  seeds  or  fruit.  In 
proportion,  also,  as  the  roots  of  plants  extend  into  the 
earth,  the  less  water  at  the  surface  is  required.  Tap- 
rooted  plants,  like  cotton,  when  once  established,  are  not 
apt  to  suffer  from  drought;  but  those  with  roots  at  the 
surface  only  need  frequent  watering.     Perennial  plants, 


MULCHING,  SHADING-,  AND  WATERING. 


245 


also,  in  general  require  less  the  artificial  application  of 
water  than  annuals.  The  growth  of  the  former  is  merely 
suspended  by  dry  weather  for  the  time  being,  to  be  re- 
sumed when  moisture  is  supplied;  but  if  water  and  the 
food  of  which  it  is  the  vehicle  be  withheld  from  annual 
plants,  the  double  tax  imposed  upon  them  by  nature  of 
forming  both  roots  and  shoots  at  the  same  time,  can  no 
longer  be  met.  Growth  being  suspended,  the  plant  at- 
tempts to  flower  and  ripen  seed,  and  thus,  while  imper- 
fectly developed,  it  reaches  the  limit  of  its  existence  and 
dies. 

Plants  with  fleshy  or  fibrous  roots  are  impatient  of 
abundant  waterings,  yet  do  not  well  resist  drought. 
Bulbous  and  tuberous  rooted  plants,  and  those  with  fleshy 
leaves,  can  support  drought  a  long  time  and  do  well  with 
rare  but  abundant  waterings.  Germinating  seeds  and 
young  plants  should  be  watered  lightly  but  frequently. 
In  a  state  of  free  growth,  water  abundantly;  while  ripen- 
ing fruit,  water  rarely;  when  transplanting,  water  freely. 

The  lighter  the  soil,  the  more  frequent  and  copious 
must  be  the  supply  of  water.  When  the  tefcnperature  in 
summer  becomes  elevated  and  the  days  are  clear  and  the 
atmosphere  dry,  and  evaporation  increases,  while  rains 
become  less  frequent,  water  must  be  given  more  co- 
piously; for  at  such  times  mere  sprinklings  bake  the  soil 
and  do  more  harm  than  good. 

When  at  rest,  as  in  the  winter  of  temperate  climates 
and  in  the  dry  season  of  the  tropics,  very  little  moisture 
in  the  earth  is  required  by  perennials,  except  marsh 
plants.  Bulbs  in  a  state  of  rest  will  endure  almost  any 
amount  of  dryness,  and  may  even  be  exposed  to  excessive 
heat,  somewhat  resembling,  in  this  respect,  a  ripened 
seed.  Bulbs  that  have  been  kept  dry  for  some  time,  when 
again  to  be  started  into  growth,  should  receive  but  little 
water  at  first.    If  much  is  given,  it  will  be  absorbed  with- 


246  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

out  being  digested,  and,  stagnating  within,  will  destroy 
the  bulb.  Hence,  we  plant  bulbs  in  a  light  soil  and  on 
raised  beds,  that  the  superabundant  moisture  may  not 
destroy  the  roots. 

But  a  moderate  degree  of  water  is  needed  when  vege- 
tation commences  in  the  spring,  for  the  earth  is  usually 
sufficiently  moist;  but  when  they  have  started  into 
growth,  plants  should  be  abundantly  supplied,  and  the 
quantity  gradually  diminished  as  the  organization  be- 
comes complete.  As  autumn  approaches,  evaporation 
becomes  less,  and  the  supply  of  water  should  be  dimin- 
ished, both  in  the  quantity  and  frequency  of  application. 
Withholding  water  gradually  from  plants  that  are  to  be 
kept  through  the  winter  will  cause  them  to  ripen  their 
shoots,  and  they  will  be  more  likely  to  survive  the  cold 
season. 

No  plant,  at  any  time,  should  receive  more  moisture 
I  ban  it  can  consume  either  by  assimilation,  or  rejection  in 
the  form  of  perspiration.  Plants  with  large,  broad  leaves, 
like  tobacco,  squashes,  etc.,  expose  more  surface  to  the 
light  and  sun,  perspire  freely,  and  hence  need  more  water 
than  those  with  small,  pinnate  leaves,  like  the  acacia,  or 
than  succulent,  or  fleshy  plants,  a  class  that  requires  but 
little  water  at  any  time,  and  is  very  impatient  of  an  ex- 
cessive supply,  especially  in  winter. 

Watering  artificially  is  resorted  to  in  order  to  maintain 
a  proper  degree  of  humidity  in  the  soil.  This  is  indispen- 
sable in  hot-houses,  etc.,  and  with  all  plants  in  pots.  With 
these  the  protection  of  the  glass  assists  in  keeping  the  air 
about  the  plants  in  a  state  of  humidity. 

But  in  open  air  culture,  artificial  watering*  can  never  be 
so  beneficial  as  natural  rain,  and  is  often,  indeed,  a  real 
disadvantage  to  plants. 

Artificial  watering,  with  all  its  disadvantages,  must, 
to  a  considerable  extent,  be  resorted  to  in  hot  climates, 


MULCHING,  SHADING,  AND  WATERING.  247 

or  the  results  of  gardening  will  often  be  quite  unsatis- 
factory. In  giving  it,  the  conditions  of  beneficial,  natural 
watering  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  observed.  The 
rains  that  are  most  refreshing  to  plants  are  those  of  mild 
temperature  and  which  distil  gently,  bringing  to  the  roots 
of  plants  not  moisture  only,  but  ammonia  and  carbonic 
acid.  If  rain  did  not  bring  with  it  fertilizing  matters,  it 
w7ould  in  time  wash  out  all  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and 
leave  it  sterile.  This  is  the  effect  of  heavy,  beating- 
storms,  which  carry  away  more  of  fertility  than  they 
bring;  while  if  the  soil  be  stiff  they  puddle  the  surface, 
rendering  it,  when  dry,  impervious,  preventing  the  access 
of  atmospheric  air  and  the  moisture  of  the  dew  and  of  any 
gentle  rains  that  follow. 

Hence,  in  applying  water,  it  should  not  be  thrown  upon 
the  soil  wTith  force  from  a  coarsely  perforated  watering- 
pot,  as  its  effects  would  be  injurious  in  precisely  the  same 
way  as  a  washing  rain.  To  tender  plants  and  germinating 
seeds  it  should  be  applied  through  a  very  fine  rose.  The 
rose  to  a  garden  watering  pot  should  not  permit  a  com- 
mon pin  to  enter  its  perforations.  For  delicate  seedlings 
in  pots  it  is  better  to  give  water  by  sprinkling  gently  from 
a  wetted  brush,  both  the  plants  and  the  soil.  For  larger 
plants  in  pots  or  in  the  ground,  the  leaves  may  be 
sprinkled,  unless  too  succulent,  but  the  main  supply  of 
water  should  be  given  by  pouring  it  gently  upon  the  sides 
of  the  pot  or  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  let  it  flow 
gradually  over  and  sink  into  the  soil. 

It  is  not  best,  in  general,  to  water  close  by  the  stems  of 
plants.  The  roots  take  up  food  only  at  their  extremities, 
and  generally  extend  as  far  as  the  branches.  Both  the 
roots  and  leaves  of  plants  require  water,  and  receive 
it  in  natural  watering.  But  the  rains  that  fall  upon  a 
tree  do  not  fall  upon  its  trunk,  but  roll  off  all  around  it, 
and  drop  precisely  where  the  extending  roots  are  ready 


248  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

to  take  it  up.  Watering  directly  at  the  base  of  a  plant, 
close  to  its  stem  and  collar,  will  be  likely  to  rot  or  injure 
that  vital  part,  and  small,  delicate  plants  are  pretty  sure 
to  damp  off.  Thus  applied,  much  of  the  water  never 
reaches  the  absorbing  extremities  of  the  root.  As  a  plant 
increases  in  size,  the  farther  from  the  stem  should  the 
water  be  applied. 

Vines  trained  to  verandas,  or  growing  up  under  the 
eaves  of  dwellings,  often  suffer  from  the  want  of  water 
applied  to  the  foliage.  Trained  against  the  walls,  evapo- 
ration goes  on  very  rapidly  from  the  heat  reflected  upon 
them,  and  but  very  little  ram  falls  upon  the  foliage. 
They  also  become  covered  with  dust  and  their  pores 
choked  therewith.  When  the  sun  shines  warm  and 
brightly,  plants  should  be  watered  only  about  the  roots, 
for  if  applied  to  the  foliage,  the  drops  remaining  thereon 
act  as  so  many  burning  glasses,  and  scorch  the  leaves, 
covering  them  with  brown  spots  wherever  the  water  rests. 
But  in  the  spring,  when  the  earth  is  moist,  if  the  air  is 
dry,  and  indeed  at  all  times  when  the  atmosphere  is  dry, 
and  particularly  Avhen  plants  become  covered  with  dust, 
they  will  be  greatly  refreshed  by  syringing  or  sprinkling 
the  foliage  in  the  evening  or  morning,  if  their  leaves  are 
not  susceptible  of  change  by  humidity. 

Plants  in  pots  should  be  watered  frequently  and  little 
at  a  time.  If  the  ball  has  become  dry,  do  not  deluge  it 
at  once,  as  it  will  flow  directly  through  the  pot  or  out  at 
the  sides,  carrying  with  it  the  richness  of  the  soil,  while 
the  ball  still  remains  dry.  Give  it  a  little  water,  and  when 
that  soaks  up,  give,  a  few  minutes  after,  a  little  more, 
until  the  entire  ball  is  in  a  suitable  state  of  humidity.  The 
drainage  must  be  good,  or  if  much  water  is  given  to  plants 
in  pots,  the  soil  will  become  heavy,  water-logged,  and 
impervious  to  the  atmosphere. 

The  best  water  to  use  is  rain  water,  caught  in  open 


MULCHING,  SHADING,  AND  WATERING.  249 

cisterns,  as  it  is  well  aerated  aud  abounds  in  ammonia 
and  fertilizing  gases.  If  spring  or  well  water  must  be 
used,  add  a  very  little  guano,  say  a  pound  or  two  to 
twenty  gallons  of  water,  giving  the  smaller  quantity  to 
delicate  plants,  and  the  larger  to  gross  feeders,  and  before 
using  let  it  stand  a  few  hours.  Manure  from  the  hen  roost 
in  double  quantity  may  be  substituted  for  guano.  For 
sprinkling  the  foliage,  pure  water  is  better. 

The  temperature  of  water,  too,  must  be  regarded.  The 
good  effects  of  bottom  heat  in  hot-beds,  or  of  artificial 
heat  in  greenhouses,  are  often  entirely  counteracted,  and 
plant  growth  brought  to  a  stand  by  watering  with  cold 
water.  It  is  not  only  the  lowering  of  the  temperature  of 
the  roots  of  plants,  but  the  suddenness  of  the  change  that 
is  injurious  and  often  fatal.  Water  should  always  be 
applied  a  few  degrees  warmer  than  the  soil,  that  growth 
may  be  promoted  and  not  checked. 

As  to  the  time  of  day  at  which  water  should  be  given, 
unless  applied  quite  freely,  it  does  little  good  iu  the  heat 
of  a  summer's  day,  as  the  hot  atmosphere  drinks  up  the 
moisture  before  the  plant  can  imbibe  it.  The  effect  of 
rain  can  be  best  secured  by  watering  just  at  night,  when 
the  falling  dew  will,  in  some  measure,  prevent  evapora- 
tion from  the  plants,  and  they  will  be  fully  refreshed 
during  the  night.  But  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  to  water 
in  the  evening  in  dry  weather  darkens  the  soil,  and,  there- 
fore, increases  radiation.  Evaporation  is  also  greatly  in- 
creased; the  temperature  sinks  rapidly,  the  plants  are 
chilled,  if  not  frozen,  and  make  less  growth  than  if  not 
watered  at  all.  So,  also,  in  autumn,  for  the  same  reason. 
In  both  spring  and  autumn,  therefore,  water  only  in  the 
morning,  and  the  heat  of  the  soil  will  not  be  materially 
lowered,  the  sun's  rays  communicating  fresh  warmth. 

It  should  be  the  great  object  of  the  gardener  to  avoid 
the  necessity  of  watering,  by  shading  the  earth  or  the 


250  GAKDENIWG    FOK    THE    SOUTH 

plants  themselves  by  mulching,  top-dressing,  or  sun 
shades.  Seeds  will  come  up  much  more  satisfactorily  in 
the  open  ground  if  shaded,  than  if  one  depends  upon 
watering.  If  watering  is  resorted  to  at  all,  it  should  be 
given  copiously  and  the  supply  kept  up  until  the  plants 
are  established.  After  watering,  the  ground  should  be 
stirred  about  the  plants,  if  up,  as  soon  as  it  is  sufficiently 
dry,  and  never  allowed  to  become  hard.  A  mulching  of 
leaf  mould  is  desirable,  to  keep  the  surface  in  a  proper 
state,  and  if  applied  when  the  surface  is  wet,  it  will  pre- 
vent the  necessity  of  repeated  waterings.  (De  Candolle, 
Lindley,  Mcintosh.) 

Summer  Cultivation. — If  before  seeds  are  planted, 
the  soil  be  deeply  moved  and  finely  pulverized,  the  labor 
necessary  in  the  subsequent  culture  of  garden  crops  is 
greatly  diminished.  Still,  the  hoe  cannot  be  dispensed 
with,  and  the  soil  is  stirred  therewith  among  our  growing 
crops,  in  order  that  the  earth  may  be  kept  in  a  light  and 
permeable  slate,  so  that  the  roots  of  plants  may  extend 
freely  through  it  in  search  of  food.  If  kept  in  this  condi- 
tion, water  deposited  by  rain  and  dew  is  imbibed  more 
readily  and  sinks  more  deeply  into  the  soil,  supplying 
plants  both  with  moisture  and  ammonia.  Moisture  from 
beneath  is  also  more  freely  supplied  by  capillary  attrac- 
tion from  the  subsoil  if  the  earth  is  kept  in  a  light,  porous 
state.  The  atmosphere,  laden  with  nutritive  gases,  freely 
penetrates  the  soil  and  deposits  nourishment  within  reach 
of  the  young  rootlets  of  plants.  By  the  same  process 
weeds  are  destroyed,  their  growth  prevented,  and  there 
is  also  a  thorough  pulverization  and  intermixture  with 
the  soil  of  the  manures  which  have  been  applied. 

Judgment  as  to  the  time  and  manner  of  hoeing  must  be 
exercised.  Even  hoeing  may  do  harm — but  there  is  more 
danger  that  it  will  not  be  done  sufficiently  often,  than  per- 
formed imperfectly.    In  a  hot  and  a  dry  climate,  hoe  less 


MULCHING,  SHADING,  AND  WATERING.  251 

deeply  than  in  those  that  are  cold  and  moist,  as  hoeing 
favors  evaporation,  and  this  may  prove  injurious  where* 
the  sun  is  hot  and  the  rains  arc  not  frequent.  So  in 
spring,  hoe  more  deeply  and  frequently  than  when  the 
season  becomes  advanced.  A  heavy,  argillaceous  soil 
should  be  more  deeply  moved  than  one  more  sandy. 
Where  a  poor  soil  has  been  recently  manured,  it  should 
not  be  hoed  too  deeply,  but  the  compost  should  be  allowed 
to  remain  intermixed  with  the  surface  soil. 

In  practice  the  plants  cultivated  and  their  stage  of  ad- 
vancement must  also  be  considered.  Plants  with  long 
tap-roots,  like  beets  and  carrots,  are  benefited  by  deep 
hoeing,  which  might  be  injurious  to  those  with  fibrous 
and  spreading  roots.  Among  the  latter,  deep  culture  be- 
tween the  rows  is  beneficial,  so  long  as  the  plants  are 
young,  and  their  roots  not  extended;  but  when  they  begin 
to  shade  much  of  the  surface,  and  to  occupy  most  of  the 
soil  with  their  roots,  merely  loosening  the  immediate  sur- 
face, at  the  same  time  destroying  all  weeds,  will  be  quite 
sufficient. 

All  garden  crops,  then,  should  be  frequently  and  deeply 
hoed  early  in  the  season,  and  in  the  early  stages  of  their 
growth.  Even  to  suppress  the  weeds  which  spring  up 
freely  in  the  moist  soil  at  that  time  requires  frequent  and 
thorough  hoeing.  Of  course,  hoeing,  or  moving  the  soil 
in  any  way,  is  not  to  be  undertaken  while  it  is  wet.  When 
young  seedling  plants  first  appear,  the  earth  must  be 
lightly  stirred  about  them,  to  break  up  any  crust  upon  the 
surface  that  may  have  formed.  Take  care  not  to  injure 
the  young  plants,  though  at  this  time  the  mutilation  of  a 
few  roots,  if  the  most  of  them  are  unhurt,  is  easily  re- 
paired; and  the  plant  is  not  so  much  injured  by  their  loss 
as  benefited  by  that  thorough  pulverization  of  the  soil 
that  permits  the  free  extension  of  the  roots,  and  opens  it 
to  the  air  and  night  dews. 


252  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

At  this  time  all  weeds  should  be  removed,  and  the 
'  plants  thinned  to  an  inch  apart,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with 
each  other.  When  they  have  made  a  little  more  growth, 
and  there  is  less  danger  of  insects  and  other  disasters, 
they  should  be  thinned  to  the  proper  distance  and  hoed 
more  deeply,  taking  care  not  to  coven-  or  injure  the  young 
plants.  After  this  continue  to  keep  the  soil  light  and 
open,  of  course  destroying  all  weeds. 

In  heavy  loams,  watering  or  dashing  rains  will  fre- 
quently puddle  the  surface,  which  bakes  in  the  sun  so 
effectually  as  to  exclude  the  atmosphere.  The  rains  that 
follow  flow  off  without  sinking  into  and  moistening  the 
soil.  But  a  soil  which,  soon  after  each  rain,  while  not  too 
wet,  is  freshly  hoed,  will,  at  all  times,  present  an  open, 
porous,  finely  pulverized  surface,  ready  for  the  absorp- 
tion of  plant  food  from  the  atmosphere,  and  easily  per- 
meable to  the  roots  of  plants  in  search  of  it. 

As  the  plants  increase  in  size,  the  ground  is  shaded  by 
their  foliage,  which,  in  a  measure,  prevents  the  growth 
of  weeds  and  protects  the  surface  of  the  soil  from  being- 
hardened  by  the  sun.  At  this  time  hoeing  is  less  required, 
nor  can  it  be  performed  without  considerable1  mutilation 
of  the  branches  and  larger  roots,  and  thus  cutting  off  in 
part  their  communication  with  the  soil — injuries  from 
which  plants  in  an  advanced  stage  of  growth,  and  under 
the  burning  heat  of  summer  do  not  readily  recover. 

It  is  not  fully  decided  whether  the  soil  should  be  fre- 
quently stirred  during  droughts.  Our  present  opinion  is, 
that  in  all  warm  climates  it  should,  at  such  times,  be  un- 
disturbed. If  the  earth  be  already  loose  and  in  fine  tilth, 
the  air  that  enters  into  its  pores  will  deposit  its  moisture 
therein.  At  night  tin1  dews  are  deposited  much  more 
heavily  upon  freshly  dug  soil.  Rut  this  deposit  of  atmos- 
pheric moisture  will  avail  little  if  the  surface  is  often 
stirred,  as  more  water  will  be  given  off  by  day  than  is 


MULCHING,  SHADING,  AND  WATERING.  253 

absorbed  at  night;  and  a  plot  frequently  hoed  during  a 
drought  would  at  length  become  quite  dry  to  nearly  the 
depth  it  was  cultivated.  However  it  may  be  in  England, 
here  no  deposit  of  moisture  from  night  dews,  or  supply 
brought  up  by  capillary  attraction  from  beneath,  can 
make  good  the  loss  of  water  by  evaporation  from  the  soil 
in  a  hot  summer  day.  De  Candolle  says  that  in  most  hot 
countries  frequent  hoeings  are  avoided,  as  the}'  really 
have  the  evil  of  favoring  evaporation  of  moisture  from 
the  soil  at  the  time  when,  the  heat  being  most  intense, 
the  water  is  naturally  retained  therein  by  the  hardening 
of  its  surface,  and  would  act  with  most  activity  in  decom- 
posing and  dissolving  the  organic  matters  it  contains. 
The  true  course  is  deep,  thorough  culture  early  in  the 
season  and  while  plants  are  young.  But  hoeing  must  not 
be  performed  in  spring  or  autumn,  at  times  when  the  in- 
dications are  that  frosty  nights  will  follow,  as  tender 
plants  are  much  more  likely  to  be  killed  thereby  from 
the  increased  evaporation  at  the  surface  of  fresh  dug  soil. 
Through  the  summer,  after  each  good  rain,  as  soon  as  the 
ground  will  do  to  work,  stir  the  surface  and  kill  the  weeds, 
leaving  it  in  a  light,  friable  condition,  to  be  undisturbed, 
unless  to  destroy  any  weeds  that  appear,  until  another 
rain  renders  further  hoeing  necessary.  Continue  this 
until  the  plants  approach  blossoming,  or  begin  to  cover 
the  ground,  after  which  hoeing,  if  performed  at  all,  must 
be  as  shallow  as  possible.  A  soil  thus  managed  is  always 
open  to  atmospheric  influences,  and  what  moisture  it  may 
have  or  receive  is  better  retained. 


254  GAKDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

CHAPTER   XIV. 

PROTECTION  FROM  FROST. 

Late  spring  frosts  are  the  terror  of  gardeners.  In  sec- 
tions of  country  subject  to  them,  tender  plants  should  not 
be  planted  early.  As  mulched  or  newly  dug  soils  are 
much  more  liable  to  the  white  frosts  of  spring,  mulching 
should  not  be  applied  to  Irish  potatoes,  etc.,  until  danger 
of  frosts  is  over,  nor  should  tender  plants  be  hoed  when 
a  change  to  cold  may  be  anticipated.  If  a  frost  is  appre- 
hended, plants  in  hills  are  best  protected  with  boxes,  vine 
shields,  or  plant  protectors  placed  over  them.  Rows  of 
beans  or  potatoes  can  be  secured  by  covering  them  with 
wide  plank  placed  on  blocks  two  or  three  inches  above 
the  plants.  "Almost  all  the  modes  of  protecting  plants 
are  founded  on  the  doctrine  of  radiation,  and  hence  the 
fact  should  be  kept  constantly  in  mind  that  all  bodies 
placed  in  a  medium  colder  than  themselves  are  con- 
tinually giving  out  their  heat  in  straight  lines,  and  that 
these  straight  lines,  when  the  body  is  surrounded  by  air, 
may  alwa3rs  be  reflected  back  upon  the  body  from  which 
they  emanate  by  the  slightest  covering  placed  at  a  short 
distance  from  them;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  this 
slight  covering  be  placed  close  to  the  body,  instead  of 
reflecting  back  the  heat  it  will  carry  it  off  by  conduction — 
that  is,  the  heat  will  pass  off  through  the  covering  closely 
applied,  and  be  radiated  from  its  surface."  (Daniel.) 
Hence,  the  covering  or  protection  given  is  far  more  effi- 
cient if  it  enclose  a  stratum  of  air  without  actually  touch- 
ing the  plant. 

When  plants  are  actually  frozen,  in  many  cases  they 
may  be  saved  if  they  can  be  thawed  gradually  without 
exposure  to  the  sun.     To  effect  this,  if  coverings  are  ap- 


PROTECTION  FEOM  FEOST.  255 

plied  before  sunrise,  or  the  plants  are  sprinkled  repeat- 
edly with  water  until  the  frost  is  extracted,  they  generally 
escape  without  serious  injury.  If  a  frosty  night  is  followed 
b}'  a  cloudy  or  foggy  morning,  injury  to  plants  need  not 
be  apprehended. 

Fruit  trees  and  vines  in  blossom,  or  with  young  fruit 
set,  are  in  some  large  districts  so  liable  to  suffer  from  late 
spring  frost,  that  fruit  bearing,  in  the  case  of  those  first 
to  bloom,  is  the  exception.  The  crop  is  lost,  perhaps,  two 
years  out  of  three.  It  is  seldom  in  the  most  frosty  locali- 
ties that  they  are  endangered  more  than  two  or  three 
nights  in  a  season,  all  the  fruit  of  the  peach  being  rarely 
killed  until  it  begins  to  enlarge,  and  the  blossom  is  on 
the  wane.  Such  trees  are  too  large  to  admit  of  being 
covered.  They  ran,  however,  be  fully  protected  by  smoke. 
Ordinary  smoke  in  still,  frosty  nights,  rises  rapidly,  and 
to  be  of  any  service,  it  must  settle  over  the  trees  in  a 
moderately  dense  cloud,  acting  as  a  screen  and  prevent- 
ing radiation.  A  heavy,  damp  smoke,  not  rising  rapidly, 
in  which  the  trees  are  kept  fully  enveloped  until  some 
time  after  sunrise,  is  what  is  necessary  to  protect  a  fruit 
garden.  A  slight  frost  will  do  fruit  blossoms  little  injury, 
and  there  are  some  which  will  bear  a  good  many  more 
degrees  of  cold  than  others.  When  a  severe  frost  is 
pretty  certain,  billets  of  short,  dry  wood,  fat  light-wood, 
and  piles  of  wet  tan,  sawdust,  or  other  damp  trash, 
should  be  distributed  about  two  rods  apart  over  the  fruit 
garden,  and  the  most  to  the  windward.  The  tan  or  trash 
should  be  distributed  during  the  winter.  About  three 
o'clock  in  the  morning  is  soon  enough  to  start  the  fires, 
each  of  which  is  made  with  three  or  four  of  the  billets, 
being  kindled  with  the  light  wood.  When  well  lighted, 
put  on  and  nearly  smother  it  with  the  wet  tan.  If  it 
again  break  out  into  a  blaze,  apply  more  tan,  and  keep 
up  damp,  smouldering  fires,  and  a  curtain  of  smoke  over 


256  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

the  trees  until  the  sun  is  well  up  and  the  frost  fully  ex- 
tracted. If  the  fruit  is  frozen  hard  as  bullets,  have  no 
fears,  but  keep  up  a  dense  smoke.  By  this  mode  of  apply- 
ing smoke  the  peach  crop  can  be  saved  every  year.  There 
is  no  doubt  about  it.  When  a  boy — thirty-five  years  ago — 
we  ate  of  pears  thus  saved  by  an  uncle  of  ours,  and  have 
ourselves  since  repeatedly  practiced  it  and  seen  it  tried 
by  others.  Our  Gardening  was  the  first  English  work, 
so  far  as  we  know,  in  which  this  mode  of  protection  was 
published,  though  French  authors,  we  find,  allude  to  the 
process.  Boussingault  says  it  is  as  old  as  the  Incas  of 
Peru.  The  peach  crop  has  thus  been  preserved  with  the 
mercury  as  low  as  2±  on  the  morning  of  March  27th, 
and  the  blossoms  mostly  fallen.  Without  such  protection 
few  good  varieties  of  the  peach  are  safe  with  the  mer- 
cury below  30°.  The  expense  of  the  operation  is  but  a 
trifle,  compared  with  the  value  of  a  fine  crop  of  fruit  in  a 
locality  where  all,  not  thus  protected,  is  cut  off. 

Winter  protection  is  also  necessary  for  the  preservation 
of  many  valuable  plants,  the  limits  within  which  they  are 
naturally  found  being  much  narrower  than  those  within 
which  they  can  bo  grown  in  perfection  with  a  little  pro- 
tection. Besides  ordinary  bedding  plants  which  are 
stored  during  the  winter  in  pits  or  other  structures,  and 
again  occupy  the  beds  and  borders  when  danger  of  frost 
is  over,  there  is  a  large  class  of  plants,  that,  with  a  slight 
protection  where  they  stand,  will  pass  the  winter  safely, 
and  throw  up  much  more  vigorous  shoots  than  if  taken 
up  and  replanted.  A  friend  of  ours  succeeds  perfectly 
with  the  fig  in  Pennsylvania  by  bending  down  the  limbs 
yearly  and  covering  them  with  earth;  while  in  Georgia, 
with  no  protection,  they  are  occasionally  killed  to  the 
ground. 

Ordinary  herbaceous  plants  need  no  protection  unless 
they  have  been  divided  or  transplanted  in  autumn.  Those 


PROTECTION  FROM  FROST. 


257 


that  are  more  tender  may  have  their  roots  and  crowns 
protected  with  moss,  straw,  or  coarse  stable  manure,  not 
placed  so  thick  as  to  heat.  If  leaves  are  used  a  little  soil 
or  brush  should  be  thrown  over  them  to  keep  them  in 
place.  Tender  bulbs  are  protected  in  the  same  way.  If 
the  foliage  is  evergreen,  it  must  not  be  smothered  with 
too  thick  a  covering. 

Shrubby  plants  may  have  their  roots  well  covered  thus, 
and  their  stems  bound  with  straw  or  moss.  For  small 
shrubs,  a  few  evergreen  Roughs  thrown  'over  them  is  a 
good  protection;  larger  ones  may  have  their  branches 
drawn  together  and  wound  with  straw.  Tender  roses  may 
have  tan-bark  or  sawdust  banked  up  about  their  stems, 
to  be  removed  in  spring. 

Climbing  plants,  if  tender,  must  be  taken  down  and 
laid  upon  the  soil  to  be  covered  with  leaves  or  earth. 

There  is  some  danger  where  much  litter  is  used,  of 
harboring  vermin.  Many  things  are  better  protected  by 
bending  a  few  hoops  across  the  bed  with  three  or  four 
laths  lying  on  them,  on  which  is  thrown  a  cloth  or  mat- 
ting in  severe  weather.  Pansies,  carnations,  and  stocks, 
are  thus  generally  protected,  giving  them  light  and  air  in 
mild  weather.  Flower  pots,  sun  shades,  vine  shields,  and 
wooden  frames,  covered  with  canvas  or  oiled  paper,  are 
all  useful  in  protecting  low  plants.  Boxes  and  barrels 
are  convenient  for  larger  ones.  None  of  these  must  touch 
the  plant  they  cover,  as  they  wTould  conduct  the  heat  away 
from  what  they  touched.  The  main  object  of  these 
coverings  is  to  confine  the  air  and  protect  the  surface 
from  radiating  heat. 

All  plants  will  endure  more  frost  uninjured  in  a  dry, 
well-drained  soil.  In  low,  damp  locations,  plants,  else- 
where considered  hardy,  are  frequently  killed  by  frost. 
They  are  also  much  more  easily  injured  directly  after  a 
mild  term  starts  them  into  growth. 


258  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Iii  Florida  protection  against  frost  is  secured  by  the 
use  of  laths  fastened  with  wire  (the  space  between  each 
being  the  width  of  the  lath).  This  screen  spread  over  the 
plants  greatly  retards  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the 
plant,  and  reduces  the  chances  for  frost. 

Mr.  E.  L.  Koethen,  a  member  of  the  Frost  Protection 
Committee  of  the  Riverside  Horticultural  Club,  of  Cali- 
fornia, gives  the  following  excellent  data  concerning  his 
experiments  on  protection  against  frost.  The  conclusions 
are  of  great  interest  to  all  fruit-growers: 

1.  In  sections  where  there  is  a  prevailing  draft  from  a  certain  direc- 
tion concentrate  the  fires  somewhat  on.  the  sides  of  the  orchard  from 
which  this  draft  comes. 

2.  Some  fires  are  needed  all  through  the  orchard. 

3.  If  the  thermometer  should  reach  26°  by  midnight,  start  firing  at 
once.  If  smudging  is  to  be  depended  upon,  you  should  commence  much 
earlier.  To  be  safe,  commence  lighting  baskets,  if  the  thermometer 
should  reach  26°  as  late  as  4:30  A.  M. 

4.  Ripe  fruit  will  stand  more  frost  than  green  fruit.  The  above 
figures  are  for  ripe  fruit. 

5.  The  thermometer  may  go  many  degrees  below  the  dew-point  in 
our  climate  on  nights  when  the  sun  sets  behind  heavy  clouds. 

6.  A  mild  day  may  be  followed  by  a  night  of  danger  to  citrus  fruits. 

7.  The  upper  strata  of  air  are  much  warmer  than  the  lower.  Eight 
degrees  was  found  to  be  the  variation  between  a  height  of  5  and  50 
feet,  upon  different  tests. 

8.  Thermometers  should  be  tested  each  year,  and  the  variation  noted 
and  accounted  for  at  each  reading. 

9.  A  good  way  to  secure  uniform  observations  and  the  extreme  tem- 
perature to  which  fruit  is  exposed  is  to  fasten  the  thermometer  to  a 
slender  stick  five  feet  long  and  place  in  the  space  between  four  trees, 
away  from  buildings  or  other  shelter. 

10.  Every  grove  has  some  spot  that  is  colder  than  any  other.  Find 
it,  and  be  governed  in  your  firing  by  the  temperature  there,  keeping 
your  eye  en  other  locations,  for  the  coldest  place  may  shift  around. 

11.  A  thermometer  that  registers  too  high  may  be  very  comforting, 
but  is  not  a  safe  guide  unless  allowance  is  made  for  correction. 

12.  A  thermometer  that  registers  too  low  may  cost  unnecessary 
labor,  expense,  and  anxiety. 


PROTECTION  FROM  FROST.  259 

13.  We  need  a  united  system  of  general  alarm  for  localities  through- 
out the  valley. 

14.  Wind-breaks,  parallel  with  the  flow  of  the  cold  stream  air,  are 
an  advantage  in  preventing  radiation. 

15.  Close  wind-breaks,  at  right  angles  to  the  flow  of  cold  air,  will 
form  dams  and  cause  low  temperatures  on  the  upper  side.  A  block  of 
large  trees  below  a  block  of  smaller  trees  will  have  the  same  effect. 

16.  Coal  baskets  or  brush  fires  concentrated  at  these  points  will 
drain  off  the  cold  air. 

17.  Flowing  water  is  a  help,  but  is  not  sufficient  in  itself. 

18.  Clean  culture  and  a  wet  surface  is  the  best  condition  of  the  soil 
in  times  of  danger. 

19.  Trees  that  had  suffered  from  lack  of  water  at  any  time  during 
the  development  of  the  crop  and  those  with  a  dry  surface  of  the  soil 
suffered  greatest  injury. 

20.  Firing  of  any  kind  is  beneficial  if  there  is  enough  of  it. 

21.  The  cost  need  not  be  prohibitive  for  good  results. 

22.  Accumulative  firing  is  better  than  single-handed. 

23.  A  single  grower  can  succeed  in  saving  his  fruit  with  coal  baskets 
if  he  has  enough  of  them. 

24.  Be  prepared  to  make  more  fires  than  you  will  likely  need.  The 
unexpected  sometimes  happens. 

25.  No  grower  should  depend  on  his  neighbors  for  heat  or  smudge. 
Every  gap  is  an  injury  to  the  whole.  Besides,  your  neighbors  may 
not  locate  their  fires  so  as  to  do  you  much  good. 

26.  Coal  baskets  can  be  made  for  about  seven  cents  each.  The 
filling  will  cost  about  seven  cents,  where  bituminous  coal  costs  $10  per 
ton,  and  you  should  have  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  per  acre,  according 
to  location  and  size  of  grove. 

27.  A.  little  burning  straw  is  a  snare  and  deceit. 

28.  Straw  smudge  should  be  made  with  wet  straw,  should  be  dense, 
and  should  cover  large  areas  to  yield  best  results.  Dry  straw  is  of 
little  value,  except  to  help  burn  that  which  is  very  wet. 

29.  The  efficacy  of  smudging  being  dependent  upon  preventing  radia- 
tion in  very  dry  climates,  early  lighting  in  such  cases  is  imperative. 

30.  A  little  dry  brush  is  a  great  help  in  burning  very  wet  straw. 

31.  Green  cypress  boughs  create  a  fine  smudge. 

32.  Most  groves  have  a  cold  corner.  Have  some  brush  piles  ready 
to  light  at  the  critical  hour — about  dawn. 

33.  Coal  baskets  should  be  full  at  the  start.  Coal  will  not  ignite 
readily  in  replenishing  if  a  good  bed  of  coals  is  not  secured  at  first.  A 
reserve  supply  of  coal  may  be  very  useful  if  the  cold  is  long  continued. 


260  GAKDEKING    FOK    THE    SOUTH. 

34.  Coal  baskets  need  less  attention  than  the  smudge. 

35.  Have  plenty  of  help.    The  better  your  fires  are  tended,  the  better 
the  results. 

36.  But  few  employees  can  be  depended  upon  to  look  after  the  details 
and  carry  on  the  work.    Your  personal  attention  is  needed. 

37.  Every  detail  should  be  prepared  beforehand.     There  is  no  time  to 
hunt  up  torches  and  tools  after  the  danger  point  is  reached. 

38.  Oil  fires  will  do  good  work,  but  the  smut  is  objectionable. 

39.  Evaporating  pans  give  no  visible  results. 

40.  An  awning  or  cover  was  found  to  be  of  great  service. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE. 


261 


CHAPTER    XV. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND   CULTURE. 


ARTICHOKE.— (Cynara  Scolymus.) 

The  garden  artichoke  is  a  perennial  plant,  a  native  of 
the  south  of  Europe,  where  it  has  been  in  cultivation  from 
the  time  of  the  Romans.  Columella  mentions  it,  and  says 

its  name  —  Cynara  —  is  from 
cinere  (ashes),  because  the  soil 
>^^|^^^\^k     \         for  artichokes    should    be 
r         1/< -^^>'-A  dressed  with  ashes.  The  planl 

resembles  an  overgrown  this- 
tle, but  is  more  beautiful;  has 
large,  pinnatifid  leaves,  three 
or  four  feet  long,  covered 
with  an  ash-colored  down. 
The  eatable  portion  is  the  un- 
developed flower  head,  which 
is  only  fit  for  use  before  it 
begins  to  open  its  bloom;  it 
is  about  the  size  and  some- 
^  what  the  shape  of  a  small 
pineapple. 

As  the  artichoke  is  a  native 
of  a  hot  climate,  it  is  per- 
fectly adapted  to  the  temper- 
ature of  the  South,  and  is  hardy  throughout  the  Union.  It 
adds  a  pleasant  variety  to  our  early  summer  luxuries, 
and  should  be  in  more  general  cultivation. 

There  are  three  varieties — the  Globe,  the  Oval  Green, 
and  the  Purple.  The  first  has  dull  purplish  heads  with 
scales  turned  in  at  the  top,  and  is  most  esteemed,  the 


Fig.  100— Artichoke. 


262  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

edible  parts  being  larger.  Tlie  Oval  Green  is  the  hardiest 
sort,  and  has  a  conical  or  ovate  head,  with  pointed  scales 
turned  outward.  The  Purple  is  earlier  than  the  others, 
the  scales  pointed,  tinted  with  purplish  red  towards  their 
points,  but  is  not  so  good  when  cooked.  There  is  also  the 
large  green,  which  grows  larger  than  the  common  green, 
and  is  most  esteemed  at  Paris  under  the  name  Qros  vert 
de  Laon.  The  base  of  the  scales  of  this  variety  is  quite 
thick  and  fleshy. 

The  ash  of  the  artichoke  has  been  analyzed,  and  it  is 
found  that  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  are  the  most 
abundant  constituents,  indicating  the  application  of 
ashes  and  bone-dust  as  the  best  special  manures. 

Propagation  and  Culture. — Artichokes  are  propagated 
by  seed,  or  by  offsets  from  the  old  roots.  If  by  seed,  sow 
in  early  spring  when  the  peach  is  in  full  blossom,  in  very 
rich  earth,  in  drills  an  inch  and  a  half  deep,  and  a  foot 
apart;  they  do  still  better  by  sowing  them  earlier  in  a 
cold-frame.  Transplant  them  when  from  six  to  twelve 
inches  high. into  a  rich  soil.  If  the  beds  are  thinned  out 
by  transplanting,  so  that  the  plants  are  left  a  foot  apart 
in  the  rows,  the  rest  may  remain  in  the  seed  bed  until 
fall.  The  finest  heads  are  produced  in  a  rich,  moist  loam, 
and  they  should  be  transplanted  into  such  a  soil.  The 
best  compost  is  a  mixture  of  three  parts  well-decomposed 
manure,  and  one  of  leached  ashes.  The}7  require  an  open 
exposure,  free  from  the  shade  and  drip  of  trees,  or  the 
plants  will  spindle  and  produce  worthless  heads.  The 
rows  must  be  four  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  three  feet 
in  the  rows.  Plants  from  seed  are  better  and  more  per- 
manent than  from  offsets. 

If  propagated  by  suckers,  these  must  be  slipped  off  in 
spring  from  the  parent  plant,  retaining  as  many  fibrous 
roots  as  possible.  They  should  be  selected  when  the 
leaves  are  eight  or  ten  inches  high,  and  be  taken  only 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND   CULTUEE.  263 

from  those  shoots  which  are  sound  aud  strong,  aud  have 
already  formed  some  roots.  Uncover  the  old  stools  to  the 
origin  of  the  suckers,  of  which  from  six  to  twelve  will  be 
produced  to  each  plant.  Allow  two  or  three  of  the  best 
of  these  to  remain;  slip  off  the  others  with  a  heel,  from 
which  trim  off  the  rough  part  smoothly,  retaining  the 
fibrous  roots.  Keinove  the  large  outside  leaves,  or  their 
exhalations  will  exhaust  the  plant  before  it  gets  rooted. 
They  are  greatly  invigorated  if  set  in  water  three  or  four 
hours  before  they  are  planted.  Set  them  in  rows,  the 
same  distance  as  above,  about  four  inches  deep,  in  holes 
made  with  a  trowel;  press  a  portion  of  fresh  soil  about 
their  roots  and  water  freely.  When  this  has  settled  away, 
fill  up  to  the  surface  with  soil.  Keep  sun  shades  or 
shingles  upon  the  south  side  of  them  a  few  days,  until 
established,  giving  water,  if  needed,  until  they  begin  to 
grow. 

The  only  other  attention  they  require  during  the  sum- 
mer is  the  frequent  use  of  the  hoe.  They  will  produce 
heads  the  same  year  from  June  to  October,  and  annually 
thereafter  from  April  to  June  or  July,  according  to  the 
season.  The  quality  is  improved,  though  at  the  expense 
of  the  quantity,  by  allowing  only  the  head  surmounting 
the  main  stem  to  grow  on  each  stalk,  removing  all  the 
laterals  of  the  stem  while  young.  As  often  as  the  head 
is  cut,  the  stem  should  be  broken  down  close  to  the  root, 
to  encourage  the  production  of  suckers  before  winter. 
They  should  receive  their  winter  dressing  before  the 
ground  freezes  deeply.  Cut  away  the  old  leaves  without 
injuring  the  center  or  side  shoots,  dig  the  ground  over, 
and  throw  the  soil  in  a  low,  broad  ridge  over  each  row, 
putting  it  close  about  the  plants,  but  leaving  the  hearts 
clear.  As  soon  as  the  shoots  appear  four  or  five  inches 
above  the  surface,  the  ridges  thrown  up  must  be  levelled 
and  the  earth  removed  from  about  the  stock  to  below  the 


-04  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

part  whence  the  young  shoots  spring,  lleinove  all  these 
shoots  but  two,  or  at  most  three,  leaving  the  most  vigor- 
ous, taking  care  to  select  those  lowest  down  on  the  stock, 
as  the  strong,  thick  ones  from  the  crown  have  hard,  woody 
stems,  and  produce  but  indifferent  heads. 

Although  the  artichoke  is  a  perennial,  yet  after  the 
fifth  year,  the  heads  grow  small  and  dry.  The  beds  should 
iu  consequence  be  broken  up  at  this  time,  or  as  soon  as 
they  begin  to  fail,  and  fresh  ones  be  formed  on  another 
site. 

As  the  newly-made  beds  come  into  flower  alter  the 
season  for  the  old  plants  is  over,  those  fond  of  this  vege- 
table will  prefer  to  make  a  new  plantation  every  year. 

Artichokes  are  made  to  attain  a  much  larger  size  than 
they  otherwise  would  by  twisting  a  ligature  tightly 
around  the  stem  below  each  head,  and  thus  preventing 
the  reflux  of  the  sap. 

The  artichoke  is  much  benefited  by  the  application  of 
seaweed  or  any  other  manure  containing  common  salt. 
This  is  probably  in  a  great  measure  because  salt  keeps  the 
soil  moist. 

Chords. — After  the  best  heads  have  been  cut,  when  old 
plantations  are  to  be  destroyed,  cut  off  the  stems  as  low 
as  possible,  and  the  leaves  within  six  inches  of  the  ground. 
When  the  new  leaves  are  two  feet  high,  blanch  them,  as 
directed  for  Cardoons,  which  many  think  they  excel. 

For  Seed. — Select  a  few  of  the  finest  heads  and  permit 
them  to  flower.  Bend  over  the  stalk  and  tie  the  head  to 
a  small  stake,  to  prevent  the  water  from  settling  among 
the  expanded  scales.  When  the  flower  has  withered,  the 
seeds  will  be  ripe.  One  ounce  of  the  seed  will  produce 
about  six  hundred  plants,  and  for  three  and  sometimes 
five  years  will  vegetate  freely  if  kept  cool  and  dry.  Put 
away  in  paper  bags  for  use. 

Properties  and  Use. — The  artichoke  is  wholesome,  jot 


VEGETABLES DESCEIPTION   AND    CULTUKE.  265 

it  contains  but  little  nutriment,  and  is  cultivated  merely 
to  please  the  palate.  The  heads  are  sometimes  pickled. 
It  is  eaten  by  the  French  as  a  salad,  with  oil  and  vinegar, 
salt  and  pepper;  the  bottoms  are  often  fried  in  paste  like 
the  eggplant.  The  English  gather  them  when  they 
spread  their  scales  and  the  flower  appears  about  to  open; 
the  whole  head  is  boiled  and  scales  pulled  off,  one  or 
two  at  a  time,  dipped  in  butter  and  pepper,  and  the  mealy 
part  stripped  off  with  the  teeth.  The  bottom,  when  the 
leaves  are  disposed  of,  is  eaten  with  the  knife  and  fork. 
The  flowers  have  the  properties  of  rennet  in  curdling 
milk. 

ARTICHOKE,  JERUSALEM.— (HeliantJi  us  tuberosus.) 

This  is  a  hardy,  perennial  species  of  sunflower,  a  native 
of  Brazil,  introduced  into  England  in  1617,  and  was  much 
esteemed  as  a  garden 
vegetable  until  the  Irish 
potato  took  its  place. 
The  crops  obtained  in 
good  soils  are  enormous. 

„,,  ,.        „  ,     .         ,,  Fig.  101 — Jerusalem  Artichoke. 

The    salts    found    in    the  & 

ashes  are  mainly  potash  and  lime, the  former  very  largely. 
Culture. — It  flourishes  best  in  a  rich,  light  soil,  with  an 
open  exposure,  but  will  thrive  in  almost  any  soil  or  loca- 
tion. Plant  in  spring  or  fall,  either  small  tubers  or  the 
large  ones,  cut  into  sets  of  one  or  two  eyes,  four  inches 
deep,  in  rows  three  and  a  half  feet  apart.  Make  the  rows 
run  north  and  south,  to  admit  the  sun,  and  put  the  plants 
eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  Keep  the  ground  free 
from  weeds  and  earth  up  slightly.  The}-  will  be  tit  for 
use  in  the  fall.  Take  care  to  dig  them  up  thoroughly,  as 
the  smallest  piece  will  vegetate.  They  will  grow  on  land 
too  poor  for  almost  anything  else.  If  the  top  be  cut  off 
one-half  way  down  in  August,  it  is  said  by  some  that  the 


266  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

size  of  the  tuber  will  be  very  muck  increased  by  the  ad- 
mission of  air  and  light.    This  is  doubtful. 

Use. — The  roots  are  eaten  boiled,  mashed  with  butter, 
and  are  considerably  nutritive,  nearly  as  much  so  as  the 
Irish  potato.  It  has  a  moist,  soft  texture,  and  a  tolerably 
agreeable  taste.  It  is,  however,  rather  a  second-rate  dish. 
They  are  better  pickled  in  vinegar.  The  plant  is  most 
useful  in  feeding  cows  and  pigs,  affording  large  quantities 
of  food  from  quite  poor  soils. 

ASPARAGUS.— ( Asparagus  officinalis.) 

This  plant  has  been  cultivated  as  a  garden  vegetable 
for  at  least  two  thousand  years.  Cato,  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  before  Christ,  gives  a  full  detail  of  its  mode  of 
culture  among  the  Romans.  Its  culture  originated 
probably  in  Greece,  for  its  name  is  pure  Greek,  and  signi- 
fies a  bud  not  fully  opened;  and  it  is  known  throughout 
Europe  by  names  derived  or  corrupted  from  the  Greek. 

The  wild  asparagus  is  found  on  the  sea  coasts  of  most 
parts  of  Europe.  Its  stem  is  not  thicker  than  a  goose- 
quill.  From  this  wild  plant,  by  the  aid  of  manure  and 
culture,  our  delicious  garden  varieties  were  raised.  Miller 
has  succeeded  in  effecting  the  same  result  in  modern 
times. 

There  are  only  two  varieties  of  any  importance — the 
green  and  the  red-topped.  The  latter,  with  purplish  green 
shoots,  is  the  one  principally  cultivated.  There  are  some 
sub-varieties,  but  these  derive  all  their  merit  from 
superior  cultivation.  R.  Thompson  states  there  is  really 
but  one  sort  of  asparagus. 

Asparagus,  like  some  other  plants,  has  the  power  of 
substituting  the  other  alkalies,  lime  and  potash,  in  the 
place  of  soda.  All  the  analyses  exhibit  large  propor- 
tions of  chloride  of  sodium,  or  its  elements,  chlorine 
and  sodium,  also  of  phosphoric  acid.    In  asparagus,  over 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE.  267 

three-fifths  of  the  inorganic  elements  of  the  plant  are 
made  up  of  these  constituents.  This  explains  why  salt 
and  seaweed  are  found  useful,  and  shows  that  the  appli- 
cation of  bone  manure,  or  superphosphate  of  lime,  in  con- 
nection with  animal  manures,  may  be  beneficial. 

Culture. — Asparagus  is  propagated  only  by  seed,  one 
ounce  of  which  will  produce  a  thousand  plants.  Sow 
quite  early  iu  spring  on  a  bed  of  fresh  and  deep  sandy 
loam,  the  richer  the  better — as  free  as  possible  from  all 
shade  of  trees  or  shrubs.  Draw  the  drills  one  foot  apart, 
and  with  a  dibble  make  holes  six  iuches  distant,  iu  which 
drop  two  or  three  seeds.  Let  the  seed  be  covered  an  iuch 
deep,  and  press  the  earth  upon  it.  If  uuable  to  sow  early 
shade  must  be  given  to  the  bed,  for  which  purpose  pine 
boughs  are  well  suited.  These  should  be  removed  at 
night  and  on  cloudy  days,  and  entirely  as  soon  as  the 
plants  are  up. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  seed-bed  light  and  free 
from  weeds,  though  this  operation  must  be  delayed  until 
the  plants  come  up.  If  two  plants  appear  in  the  same 
place,  the  weaker  must  be  removed.  Transplanted,  these 
will  make  pretty  good  plants  by  fall.  When  the  stems 
are  withered,  cut  them  down  and  spread  well-rotted 
stable  dung  over  the  bed  two  inches  deep,  which  will 
increase  the  vigor  of  the  plants  the  next  year,  and  also 
protect  them  from  frost. 

Let  the  plants  remain  in  the  seed-bed  until  they  are 
about  to  grow  early  in  spring.  To  have  this  delicacy  as 
early  as  possible,  choose  a  site  where  the  bed  can  be  fully 
exposed  to  the  sun.  If  you  wish  to  prolong  its  season, 
another  bed  may  be  planted  on  a  northern  exposure.  The 
subsoil  should  be  dry,  and  if  not  naturally  so,  must  be 
well  drained. 

The  plants  will  be  in  better  condition  for  transplanting 
after  remaining  in  the  seed-bed  two  years.     The  perma- 


268  GAEDEXIIS'G    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

uent  beds  for  asparagus  are  prepared  by  cutting  trenches 
with  a  plow.  In  Held  culture  many  growers  make  these 
trenches  thirty  iuches  apart,  to  permit  cultivation  with 
horse.  The  plow  is  run  over  the  trenches  two  or  three 
times,  so  thai  a  depth  of  teu  or  twelve  iuches  is  secured. 
Well-rotted  manure  is  now  placed  iu  aud  incorporated 
with  the  soil  by  means  of  a  fork.  Set  the  plants  in  the 
trenches  thus  prepared  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  apart, 
taking  care  to  spread  out  the  roots,  and  cover  with  four 
or  five  inches  of  soil.  If  healthy  plants  have  been  drawn 
from  the  seed-bed  and  good  manuring  given  the  trenches, 
cutting  the  asparagus  may  be  begun  the  second  year. 
The  cutting  must  never  be  continued  late  in  the  season, 
but  sufficient  shoots  must  be  left  to  develop  leaves,  or 
otherwise  the  roots  will  soon  become  exhausted  and  the 
plants  will  die.  After  the  cutting  has  ceased  the  rows 
must  be  manured  or  fertilized  by  opening  with  the  plow 
near  the  plants,  placing  the  fertilizer  in  and  running  the 
plow  over  again  to  thoroughly  mix  the  ingredients  with 
the  soil.     Ground  bone  is  suitable  for  this  purpose. 

All  weeds  must  be  removed  as  they  appear.  As  salt  is 
an  excellent  manure  for  this  plant,  the  weeds  may  be 
easily  kept  down  by  its  application.*  Old  brine  or  refuse 
salt,  in  which  meat  or  fish  has  been  packed,  is  better  than 
any  other,  as  it  abounds  in  the  blood  and  juices  of  the 
meat,  which  are  a  most  valuable  fertilizer.  Asparagus 
is  a  sea-shore  plant,  and  salt  will  not  hurt  it,  but  is  life 
and  nourishment  to  it. 

Old  beds  have  been  covered  an  inch  deep,  and  the 
plants  continued  to  thrive;  but  a  sprinkling  just  sufficient 
to  make  the  soil  look  white  is  enough.  As  soon  as  the 
plnnts  have  turned  yellow  in  the  fall,  cut  them  down  close 
to  the  ground,  but  be  careful  not  to  do  this  earlv,  or  thev 


*  It  is  but  proper  to  say  that  the  advantage  of  salt  for  asparagus  is 
now  questioned  by  some  gardeners. — P.  H.  M. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE.  269 

will  throw  up  new  shoots  and  be  much  weakened.  Re- 
move the  stalks  and  all  weeds,  cover  the  beds  with  three 
or  four  inches  of  good  stable  manure,  and  let  it  remain 
until  time  for  the  spring  dressing.  If  you  have  charcoal 
dust  at  command,  a  layer  of  an  inch  thick  over  the  manure 
will  be  found  quite  useful  in  preventing  the  loss  of  ammo- 
nia. When  the  weather  grows  warm  and  spring  has 
fairly  opened,  and  the  ground  is  sufficiently  dry,  before 
growth  commences,  with  an  asparagus  fork  dig  in  the 
manure  placed  on  the  beds  in  the  fall,  and  loosen  the 
earth  four  inches  deep,  taking  care  not  to  wound  the 
crowns  of  the  plants.  Give  the  beds  a  top-dressing  of  salt, 
two  pounds  to  the  square  yard,  or  kainit  at  the  rate  of 
six  hundred  pounds  per  acre,  before  growth  commences, 
and  water  freely  in  dry  weather.  Applications  of  liquid 
manure  are  likewise  very  salutary.  A  good  liquid  manure 
for  asparagus  is  an  ounce  of  fertilizer  and  four  ounces 
of  salt  to  two  gallons  of  water.  Fertilizer  or  night  soil 
composted  with  charcoal,  so  as  to  be  entirely  inodorous, 
is  also  beneficially  applied  at  any  time.  Another  slight 
covering  of  charcoal  dust,  after  the  spring  dressing,  will 
be  of  service,  and  make  the  shoots  earlier. 

Asparagus  should  be  cut  before  the  heads  lose  their 
compact  form,  when  only  four  or  five  inches  above  the 
ground.*  Remove  the  earth  to  the  bottom  of  the  stalk, 
and  cut  it  off  sloping  with  a  pointed  knife,  taking  care 
not  to  wound  any  other  shoots  that  may  be  near  it,  as 
they  are  constantly  putting  forth  from  the  crowns.  Too 
many  shoots  should  not  be  cut  from  the  beds,  nor  the 
gathering  prolonged  too  late.  Whenever  the  bed  puts 
up  weak  and  small  shoots,  these  should  be  allowed  to 

*  Some  market  gardeners  now  send  to  the  market  green  asparagus 
that  is  all  cut  above  ground,  because  of  the  demand.  The  vegetable 
in  this  stage  is  considered  to  be  tenderer  and  better  flavored  than 
the  white. 


270  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

remain,  which  will  increase  the  size  of  those  remaining, 
and  the  future  value  of  the  bed.  When  green  peas  be- 
come plentiful  the  asparagus  bed  should  rest.  After  the 
cutting  ceases,  you  may  judge  from  the  size  of  the  sum- 
mer shoots  the  productiveness  of  the  bed  the  coming- 
spring.  These  elaborate  the  food  for  the  future  crop. 
The  manure  applied  in  autumn  has  but  little  effect  on  the 
next  spring's  shoots,  but  from  its  influence  the  strong- 
growth  of  the  succeeding  summer  will  prepare  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  large  shoots  the  second  spring.  The  spring 
and  autumn  dressings  should  be  continued  while  the  bed 
lasts,  for  the  top  soil  must  be  kept  perfectly  free  and 
light,  that  the  shoots  may  readily  push  through  it,  and 
the  surface  left  rough,  that  it  may  catch  and  retain  the 
winter  rains  so  as  to  thoroughly  moisten  the  lower  roots. 
Finally,  good  asparagus  is  not  to  be  obtained  without 
an  abundant  supply  of  manure.  The  beds  will,  if  thus 
treated,  remain  productive  twelve  or  fifteen  years. 

Asparagus  can  be  forced  by  planting  a  hot-bed  thickly 
with  thrifty  roots;  it  comes  into  bearing  in  four  weeks, 
and  affords  asparagus  for  a  month  in  the  winter  season. 
Give  plenty  of  air  in  mild  weather. 

The  following  varieties  are  standard,  and  may  be  pur- 
chased from  the  seed  merchants  already  rooted:  Colum- 
bian Mammoth,  Conover's  Colossal,  Palmetto. 

For  Seed. — Reserve  some  of  the  best  shoots  in  the 
spring,  and  mark  them  by  placing  a  stake  by  each  one, 
and  let  them  run  up  and  ripen  their  seeds.  Take  shoots 
with  fine,  round,  close  heads;  fasten  them,  as  they  grow, 
up  to  the  stake,  and  the  seed  will  ripen  better.  Gather 
the  seed  when  ripe,  and  wash  off  the  pulp  and  husk,  which 
will  pass  off  with  the  water,  if  gently  poured  off,  and  the 
seed  will  sink  to  the  bottom.  Dry  them  thoroughly,  and 
store  away  for  use.    They  are,  for  your  own  sowing,  just 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE. 


271 


as  well  kept  and  sown  in  the  pulp.  Asparagus  seed  will 
keep  four  years. 

Use. — The  tender  shoots  thrown  up  in  the  spring  when 
four  or  five  inches  long,  are  the  parts  in  use,  and  are 
very  delicate  and  much  esteemed,  though  not  very  nutri- 
tious. They  are  excellent  simply  boiled,  or  as  an  addition 
to  soups  when  in  season. 

Marketing. — To  enter  the  market  first  with  this  popu- 
lar vegetable  will  always    secure  to  the  grower    good 


102— Bunching  Asparagus. 


prices.  Therefore  the  policy  should  be  to  plant  the 
earliest  varieties  under  the  best  conditions.  But  unless 
the  asparagus  is  properly  prepared  and  packed  profits 
will  be  greatly  curtailed.  It  is  important  to  understand 
this  fact  at  the  beginning,  and  to  make  an  honest  effort  to 
place  the  vegetable  in  the  market  in  the  most  attractive 
form.    Because  of  the  advanced  season  in  the  South  the 


272 


GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 


truckers  have  a  peculiar  advantage  over  the  Northern 
gardeners,  and  they  should  strive  to  avail  themselves  of 
this  opportunity  for  reaching'  the  Northern  markets  be- 
fore the  demand  is  greatly  diminished.  After  cutting  the 
asparagus  the  spears  are  carefully  washed  and  then  as- 
sorted into  Extras,  Primes  and 
Seconds,  the  last  containing  the 
smaller  spears.  The  bunching 
is  generally  done  by  women  in 
the  use  of  the  "  buncher  "  illus- 
trated in  Figure  102.  This 
method  insures  uniformity  in 
the  bunches  and  neatness  in 
looks.  Figure  103  shows  the 
bunch  after  it  has  been  tied 
with  raffia  or  other  suitable 
fastener. 

In  shipping  to  a  distant  mar- 
ket pack  carefully  in  a  crate, 
taking  care  to  have  the  vegeta- 
ble so  secure  that  it  will  not 
bruise  in  transit.  The  crate 
usually  adopted  in  the  South  is 
known    as    "Southern    crate," 

^^  which   is  built   to   hold   two  to 

_  -     _ __ — -.-  -■--,-  "s  fjiree  (i<)Zen  bunches  set  on  ends 

Fig.  103-Bunching  Asparagus,  on    m()ist   m()SS    to    keep   the   ag_ 

paragus  fresh.  Shipping  by  express  must  be  resorted  to 
for  long  distances,  so  that  the  vegetable  will  reach  the 
market  in  first-class  condition. 


BASIL. — (Ocimum    HasHicum,  and  0.  minimum.) 

Two  species  are  cultivated — Sweet  Basil  (().  Bapilicum) 
and  Bush  Basil  (0.  mini  mum).  Both  are  annuals,  with 
small  leaves  and  small  white  flowers,  and  natives  of  the 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  273 

East  Indies.    (Sweet  basil  is  the  species  most  cultivated, 
and  was  introduced  into  England  in  1548. 

Culture. — Basil  likes  a  rich,  light  soil,  free  from  shade. 
The  plants  may  be  started  early  in  March,  under  glass,  in 
gentle  heat.  They  should  be  thinned  when  the  young 
plants  appear,  and  transplanted  when  of  sufficient  size 
where  the}-  are  to  remain.  Basil  is  rather  difficult  to 
transplant,  but  can  be  carefully  lifted  in  tufts  with  the 
balls  of  earth  attached,  in  a  moist  time,  with  complete 
success.  Give  water  and  shade  until  established.  It  can 
also  be  sown  on  the  borders  where  it  is  to  remain,  but  if 
sown  too  early  in  the  open  air,  the  seed  is  apt  to  rot,  or 
the  young  plants  to  be  killed  by  frost,  as  they  are  rather 
tender.  April  is  the  month  for  sowing  in  the  open  ground. 
Do  not  cover  the  seed  deeply,  but  press  the  earth  upon  it. 
Make  the  rows  ten  inches  apart,  and  thin  the  sweet  basil 
to  ten  inches,  and  the  bush,  which  is  more  dwarf,  to  five 
inches  in  the  row.  Weeds  must  be  kept  under,  and  the 
soil  mellow,  by  frequent  hoeing.  Bush  basil  makes  a  very 
pretty  edging.  It  should  be  cut  not  too  closely  just  as  it 
comes  into  flower,  and  hung  up  in  small  bundles  in  the 
shade  to  dry  for  winter  use;  thus  cut,  it  will  soon  grow 
up  again.  When  thoroughly  dried,  it  may  be  pounded 
fine  and  kept  any  length  of  time  in  closely  stopped  bottles. 

Seed. — Let  some  of  the  finest  plants  remain  uncut,  and 
gather  the  seeds  as  they  ripen.  They  will  keep  for  six 
years. 

Use. — The  leaves  and  small  tops  are  the  parts  em- 
ployed, and  give  a  delightful  flavor  in  cookery.  They 
have  a  strong  flavor  of  cloves,  and  are  used  in  soups  and 
sauces,  and  other  high-seasoned  dishes.  They  are  much 
employed  in  French  cookery.  It  is  the  most  agreeable 
of  the  pot  herbs,  and  the  most  useful,  except  parsley  and 
sage. 

A  small  sprig  of  basil,  on  account  of  its  odor,  is  an 
agreeable  addition  to  a  bouquet  of  flowers. 
18 


274  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

BEANS. 

Gardeners  recognize  three  groups  of  beans,  which  are 
designated  in  catalogues  and  other  publications  <>u  the 
subject  of  plants  as — 

1.  Ordinary  broad  bean  (Vicia  Faint). 

2.  Bush,  Dwarf,  or  Freuch  kidney  beans  (Phaseolus 
vulgaris  or  P.  lunatus).  Under  this  head  is  classed  all 
those  beans  called  by  seedmen  "Bunch,"  "Snaps,"  etc. 

3.  Pole  or  climbing  beans  (Phaseolus  multiflorus). 

The  last  two  groups  are  subdivided  into — 

Bush  lima  beans  (Phaseolus  lunatus  var.  macrocarpus). 

There  are  three  types  under  this  division,  viz.:  (1)  Sieva  or 

Carolina,  (2)  flat,  and  (3)  potato. 
Pole  lima  beans. 

Under  these  several  heads  a  number  of  varieties  have 
been  developed  by  the  seedmen,  some  of  which  are  well 
adapted  to  Southern  soils  and  climate. 

BEAN,  ENGLISH  BROAD.— (Vicia  Faba.) 

The  English  Broad  Beau  is  an  annual  from  two  to  four 
feet  high,  with  white,  fragrant,  papilionaceous  flowers, 
with  a  black  spot  in  the  middle  of  the  wings;  seed  pods 
thick,  long,  wooll}T  within,  enclosing  large,  ovate,  flat 
seeds,  for  the  sake  of  which  it  is  much  cultivated  in 
Europe.  It  is  a  native  of  the  East — some  say  of  Egypt, 
but  is  probably  from  Persia,  near  the  Caspian  Sea — and 
has  been  cultivated  from  time  immemorial. 

VARIETIES. 

Mazagan. — Sweet  and  agreeable  in  flavor,  and  pro- 
duces well  if  planted  early.  Far  the  most  productive 
variety  with  me.  Pods  contain  three  or  four  beans,  which 
are  small,  oblong,  and  thick. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  275 

Long  Pod. — Stems  rise  about  three  or  four  feet  high. 
Bears  well.  The  pods  are  long,  narrow,  and  generally  con- 
tain four  beans  of  good  quality.  Remains  in  use  later 
than  the  preceding. 

Broad  Windsor. — Stems  three  to  four  feet  high;  pods 
short,  but  very  broad,  containing  two  beans,  very  large, 
roundish,  and  flattened.  Best  for  a  late  crop,  as  it  is 
longest  in  use. 

Culture. — The  early  crops  should  be  on  a  dry  soil  mod- 
erately rich  and  warm,  to  promote  their  growth  during 
the  winter.  The  later  crops  should  be  on  a  deep,  strong- 
loam.  They  are  to  be  sown  in  drills  two  and  a  half  feet 
apart  for  the  Dwarf  and  Mazagan,  and  three  feet  for  the 
others;  put  the  beans  four  inches  apart  in  the  row,  and 
cover  three  inches  deep  with  earth,  which  should  be 
pressed  upon  the  seed.  If  any  miss,  they  may  be  supplied 
by  transplanting.  This  bean  will  do  well  wherever  the 
winters  remain  open,  and  the  mercury  does  not,  in  ordi- 
nary years,  fall  below  about  10°  Fahrenheit,  and  should 
be  planted  from  October  to  February  inclusive.  In  Vir- 
ginia, and  where  frosts  are  severe,  they  must  be  put  in  as 
soon  as  the  ground  opens  in  spring,  but  they  are  then  not 
as  productive  as  when  they  can  be  planted  during  the 
months  above  named.  No  ordinary  frost  will  injure  them. 
When  two  inches  high,  hoe  between  and  draw  the  earth 
about  the  stems  of  the  plants.  Continue  this  during  their 
growth.  When  the  plants  come  into  bloom,  take  off  two 
or  three  inches  of  the  tops  of  the  stems,  which  will  in- 
crease the  crop  and  hasten  its  maturity.  The  crop  should 
be  gathered  before  they  are  full  grown,  while  they  are 
still  tender  and  delicate. 

To  Save  Seed. — Allow  a  portion  of  the  crop  to  remain 
until  ripe.    Thresh  for  use. 

Use. — The  English  use  these  beans  while  young  and 


•1  i  0  GARDENING    F0K    THE    SOUTH. 

tender,  as  we  do  green  peas.  They  must  be  cooked  very 
young,  and  in  the  same  manner;  or  may  be  boiled  with 
bacon.    They  are  not  likely  to  come  into  general  use. 

BEAN,  DWARF  OR  FRENCH  KIDlffEY.— (Phaseolus  vulgaris.) 

These  are  tender,  Leguminous  annuals,  mostly  natives 
of  India,  first  cultivated  in  England  in  151)7.  Of  this 
species  there  are  many  varieties,  of  which  the  following 
are  the  best.  (Those  with  edible  pods,  breaking  crisply, 
arc  called  snaps): 

Early  .Mohawk. — rods  long,  beans  large,  oval,  with 
dark-colored  specks.  It  bears  very  well,  is  one  of  the 
earliest  varieties,  and  is  least  injured  by  frost.  In  good 
seasons,  fit  for  the  table  about  five  or  six  weeks  afte* 
sowing. 

Early  Valentine. — Pods  round,  and  continue  crisp 
longer  than  most  other  varieties.  The  beans  are  pink- 
speckled  on  a  salmon  ground.  Bears  well.  Sown  with 
Early  Mohawk,  is  about  five  days  later. 

Newington  Wonder. — Very  dwarf,  pods  of  medium 
length,  dark-green  color,  thick  and  fleshy;  seeds  form 
slowly,  and  the  pods  continue  long  crisp  and  fit  for  use. 
Seeds  small,  oblong,  and  light  chestnut-colored  when 
ripe. 

Royal  Kidney. — Pods  long,  finely  flavored;  seeds 
white  and  large.  Sown  at  the  same  time  as  the  Mohawk 
and  Valentine;  is  a  fortnight  later  than  the  Mohawk. 
This  is  one  of  the  best  for  winter  use  when  ripe. 

Of  Punning  or  Pole  Beans,  the  best  are: 

Dutch  Case  Knife,  with  large,  broad  pods,  and  flat- 
fish, kidney-shaped,  white  seeds.  It  is  a  good  winter  bean. 

Algiers  or  Wax  Bean  is  an  early,  running  kind,  with 
pale  yellow  pods,  free  from  any  tough  lining.,  very  tender 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  'J,  i  i 

and  soft  when  cooked ;  seeds  medium-sized,  roundish, 
black.    Excellent,  but  at  the  South  soon  stops  bearing. 

London  Horticultural  is  also  excellent,  the  pods 
continuing  tender  until  the  seeds  are  quite  large;  the 
latter  arc  large  and  roundish. 

In  Southern  corn-fields  are  grown  several  excellent 
kinds,  which  are  not  described  in  our  books.  Three  are 
particularly  desirable,  viz: 

White  Prolific  is  a  medium-sized,  white,  oval,  kid- 


Kaighn.  Willow-Leaf.  Speckled.  Black.  Dreer. 

Fig.  104— Types  of  Lima  Beans.     Natural  size  (after  Bailey).     Cornell 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin  115. 

ney-shaped  bean,  with  roundish  tender  pods,  and  exceed- 
ingly prolific;  desirable  green  or  for  winter  use. 

Dark  Prolific  resembles  the  last,  but  the  seeds  are  of 
a  very  dark  dun  color. 

Black  Speckled  has  the  pods  more  flattened;  seeds 
roundish,  of  a  dull  white,  black  speckled,  and  skin  rather 
thick,  but  the  pods  are  excellent  to  use  green.  Of  very 
vigorous  growth,  and  best  endures  the  summer  heats. 
Not  over  two  plants  should  remain  to  a  pole. 


Plate  2— New  Extra  Early  Lima  Bean  (after  Bailey).     Cornell  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin  115. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE.  279 

Lima  Beans  are  from  the  East  Indies.  There  are  the 
green,  the  white,  the  speckled,  and  the  small  white  or 
Carolina.  The  white  Lima  is  not  quite  so  large  as  the 
green,  but,  bearing  with  greater  abundance,  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. It  is  also  not  quite  so  hardy  and  productive  as 
the  Carolina,  but  is  much  larger  and  richer  flavored,  and 
is  the  most  grown  for  city  markets. 

The  following  varieties  are  also  suited  to  the  climate 
of  the  Houth,  and  are  beans  of  excellent  qualities: 

Black-Eyed  Wax. — A  very  early  and  productive  bean, 
with  long,  straight  yellow  pods. 

New  Extra  Early  Refugee. — A  most  productive 
form,  improved  from  the  old  Refugee  variety;  but  much 
earlier,  and  very  prolific;  excellent  quality;  quite  tender 
at  nearly  all  stages  of  its  growth;  free  from  strings  and  a 
favorite  shipping  variety. 

Wardwell  Kidney  Wax. — A  dwarf  variety;  early 
prolific;  pods  flat  and  stringless,  waxy  yellow;  hardy  and 
productive;  a  good  shipper. 

Henderson's  Bush  Lima. — This  bean  comes  at  an 
early  period  in  the  season,  when  vegetables  generally  are 
not  abundant,  filling  a  gap  between  peas  and  pole-beans. 
The  bean  is  small,  but  very  productive,  bearing  until 
killed  by  frost. 

Burpee's  Bush  Lima. — A  larger  plant  than  the  last, 
and  not  so  early;  but  the  pods  and  beans  are  larger,  thus 
making  this  variety  popular  and  desirable. 

Carolina  or  Butter  bean  closely  resembles  the  white 
Lima,  but  is  smaller,  earlier,  hardier,  and  bears  much 
more  abundantly,  and  though  not  quite  so  rich,  is  for 
general  culture  the  best  running  bean. 

Wood-ashes  and  bone-dust,  or  superphosphate  of  lime, 
will  supply  the  soil  with  the  most  necessary  elements  for 


280 


GARDENING    FOE    TIIK    SOUTH. 


1  he  bean  crop,  which,  by  the  way,  like  most  legumes, 
draws  most  of  its  sustenance  from  the  atmosphere. 

Culture. — As  beans  are  very  easily  destroyed  by  spring 
frosts,  there  is  no  use  in  planting  the  main  crop  too  early. 
A  few  of  the  Extra  Early  or  Mohawk  may  be  planted  at 
the  same  time  with  early  corn,  and  if  there  is  danger, 
protect  them  when  they  come  up,  by  placing  wide  planks 
over  the  rows  an  inch  or  two  above  the  plants,  supported 


Fig.  105— Burpee's  Bush  Lima  Bean. 

on  blocks  or  bricks,  every  cold  night.  The  main  early  crop 
is  planted  in  Georgia  the  last  of  March,  or  early  in  April; 
near  New  York  city  about  the  first  of  May.  Planting  may 
continue  until  about  eight  weeks  before  the  autumn 
frosts  occur.  The  soil  for  the  early  crop  should  be  dry 
and  light;  if  wet  or  tenacious,  the  seed  often  decays  with- 
out germinating,  or  comes  up  spindling  and  unproductive. 
For  the  summer-sown  crop,  a  soil  slightly  moist,  but  still 
inclining  to  a  sand,  is  to  be  preferred. 

riant  in  drills  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  apart,  plac- 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AXD    CULTURE.  281 

ing  the  seed  two  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Cover  the  seeds 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  deep.  A  pint  of  seed  will  plant 
about  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  of  rows.  When 
the  plants  come  up,  thin  them  gradually  to  six  or  eight 
inches  in  the  row,  and  they  will  be  much  more  vigorous 
and  productive.  The  Late  Valentine  does  best  in  hills 
eighteen  inches  apart.  Plant  four  or  five  beans  to  a  hill. 
Keep  them  always  clean,  and  the  soil  light  and  mellow 
with  the  hoe.  Draw  the  earth  carefully  about  their  stems 
when  about  to  flower,  making  broad,  low  hills  to  protect 
the  roots  from  heat  and  drought.  If  well  cultivated,  the 
same  plants  will  continue  to  bear  a  long  time.  Do  not 
hoe  any  of  the  kidney  beans,  whether  dwarf  or  runners, 
when  the  foliage  is  wet,  as  the  plants  will  rust  and  be 
greatly  injured,  if  not  destroyed.  Choose  dry  weather  for 
working  them,  and  hoe  shallow  when  the  plauts  get  large. 
The  value  of  the  crop  depends  greatly  upon  their  being 
properly  thinned  in  the  drills  while  young. 

Pole  or  running  beans  for  snaps  may  be  planted  when 
the  main  crop  of  bush  beans  is  put  in,  or  a  few  days  later; 
and  at  the  South,  a  few  hills  should  be  planted  monthly, 
until  July,  to  give  a  succession,  for  which  nothing  is  bet- 
ter than  the  corn-field  varieties  described.  They  should 
be  planted  in  rows  about  four  feet  apart,  and  the  hills 
from  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  in  the  row.  The  hills 
should  be  broad  and  raised  some  three  inches  above  the 
ground  level.  Put  in  the  poles  before  planting,  let  them 
be  uniformly  about  ten  feet  long,  and  inserted  well  in  the 
ground.  Put  five  or  six  beans  around  each  pole,  and 
cover  them  an  inch  and  a  half  deep,  and  when  up,  reduce 
the  plants  to  three  in  a  hill,  and  where  there  are  less 
than  that,  plant  again. 

Lima  beans  require  a  rich,  strong  soil,  and  will  thrive 
on  heavy  loams,  where  the  other  running  beans  and  snaps 
would  not  flourish.  They  are  still  more  tender  than  snaps, 


282  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

and  should  not  be  planted  until  settled  warm  weather, 
as  the  seed  will  rot  in  cool  weather,  and  the  slightest 
frost  will  destroy  them  if  they  chance  to  vegetate.  The 
tenth  of  April  is  early  enough  in  Middle  Georgia;  near 
New  York  city  they  plant  a  month  later.  They  may  be 
forwarded  by  planting  in  small  pots  in  a  hot-bed  to  be 
transferred,  by  breaking  the  balls,  to  the  open  ground 
when  three  inches  high.  Lima  beans  will  not  thrive  if 
too  much  crowded;  the  rows  must  be  five  feet  apart,  and 
the  hills  three  feet  in  the  row.  The  space  between  may 
be  cropped  early  in  the  season  with  Irish  potatoes,  etc. 
When  the  plants  begin  to  run,  give  them  a  little  assist- 
ance, if  not  inclined  to  cling  to  the  poles.  If  these  are  too 
high,  the  vines  are  later  in  bearing,  and  the  crop  out  of 
reach  in  gathering.  When  they  blossom,  pinch  off  the 
tips  of  the  leading  shoots,  to  hasten  the  maturity  of  the 
crop. 

In  planting  Lima  beans,  place  the  eye  downward  and 
the  narrow  end  the  lowest,  as  the  bean  always  rises  from 
the  ground  in  that  position,  and  if  not  planted  right,  it 
has  to  turn  itself  over  in  the  soil,  and  if  prevented  by  any 
obstruction  from  turning  over,  it  is  sure  to  rot  in  the 
ground.  Flanted  in  this  way,  they  come  up  sooner,  bet- 
ter, and  more  evenly.  A  quart  will  plant  about  four  hun- 
dred hills.  The  subsequent  culture  consists  in  keeping 
the  ground  frequently  hoed  when  the  vines  are  dry.  They 
will  continue  in  bearing  until  cut  off  by  the  hard  frosts. 

For  Seed. — Gather  both  the  Lima  and  kidney  beans 
when  ripe  and  dry  them  thoroughly.  The  seed  should  be 
kept  pure  by  planting  the  varieties  at  a  distance  from 
each  other.  Where  subject  to  be  destroyed  by  bugs, 
instead  of  using  paper  bags,  put  them  up  in  glass  bottles 
or  earthen  jugs  well  corked.  Into  each  bottle  or  jug  pour, 
before  corking,  a  teaspoonful  of  spirits  of  turpentine.  The 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AXD    CULTURE. 


283 


turpentine  odor  will  destroy  the  bugs,  if  the  vessel  is 
tightly  corked,  without  injuring  the  vitality  of  the  bean. 

Use. — The  tender,  fleshy  pods  of  snap-beans  are  a  favor- 
ite summer  vegetable,  very  delicate,  wholesome,  and  mod- 
erately nutritive.  They  are  boiled  while  green,  and  may 
be  preserved  for  winter  use,  by  cutting  them  into  pieces 
and  laying  them  down  in  salt.  They  will  make  their 
own  briue,  and  must  be  kept  covered  by  it,  or  they  wTill 
spoil.  Cook  in  two  waters  to  extract  the  salt.  The  Lima 
beans,  and  the  suaps  also,  when  full  grown,  are  shelled, 
and  may  be  preserved  for  winter  use,  and  afford  in  pro- 
portion to  their  weight,  more  nutrition  than  most  other 
vegetables.  Wheat  contains  but  74  per  cent,  of  nutritive 
matter,  while  kidney  beans  contain  84  per  cent.  They 
abound  in  the  constituents  that  produce  muscle  and  fat, 
and  will  supply  better  than  most  vegetables  the  place  of 
animal  food.  Gather  them  in  their  green  state  when  full 
grown,  and  dry  them  carefully  in  the  sun.  They  are  bet- 
ter gathered  thus  than  if  delayed  until  ripe,  and  are  also 
free  from  bugs.  Soak  them  over  night  before  being 
boiled.  They  can  also  be  laid  down  with  layers  of  salt 
like  snap-beans.  They  are  very  good  gathered  when  ripe, 
and  dried  carefully  in  an  oven  in  order  to  keep  them  free 
from  insects,  which,  at  the  South,  are  quite  destructive. 
Snap-beans  are  also  pickled,  while  young,  in  the  same 
way  as  cucumbers. 

Marketing. — The  beans  must  be  picked  when  the  dew 
is  dried  off  the  pods,  so  that  there  will  be  as  small  amount 
of  moisture  present  in  the  packages  as  possible.  And  in- 
asmuch as  there  will  be  more  or  less  shrinking,  the  beans 
are  exposed  to  the  air  in  the  packing  house  an  hour  or 
more,  so  that  the  packages  will  be  full  when  they  reach 
their  destination.  An  ordinary  vegetable  crate  is  used 
in  which  the  beans  are  regularly  laid  and  well  shaken 
clown  in  order  that  the  packing  will  be  firm. 


284  GAKDENING    POK    THE    SOUTH. 

BEET. — (Beta  vulgaris,  and  B.  Cicla.) 

The  Common  Beet  (Beta  vulgaris)  is  a  biennial  plant,  a 
native  of  the  sea  coasts  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  cultivated  for  its  beautiful  red  roots  long 
before  its  edible  properties  were  discovered. 

It  was  introduced  into  England  by  Tradescant,  in  the 
year  1656.  Its  name  is  said  to  come  from  the  resemblance 
of  its  seed  to  the  letter  Beta,  of  the  Greek  alphabet. 

The  best  varieties  are  the  following: 

Extra  Early  Turnip,  or  Bassano  Beet. — The  root  is 
oval;  color,  pale  red.  Downing  truly  says  "it  is  the 
sweetest,  most  tender,  and  delicate  of  all  beets" ;  but  the 
color  boils  out,  so  that  it  is  not  as  beautiful  as  some 
others;  yet  it  is  the  best  early  beet  and  one  of  the  easiest 
grown. 

Extra  Early  Egyptian  Beet. — This  was  a  great 
favorite  among  market  gardeners  several  years  since.  It 
is  of  fair  quality,  flat  in  shape;  of  a  deep  red  color,  and  a 
small  to]).    It  soon  loses  its  flavor  and  becomes  woody. 

Early  Eclipse  Beet. — A  smooth,  round  beet  and  of 
intense  red  color,  with  small  top;  fine  grain,  sweet,  and 
delicate  flavor.  The  heavy  crop  it  produces  and  its  many 
fine  qualities  make  this  beet  desirable  for  gardens. 

For  later  crops  there  are  several  varieties  among  the 
Blood  turnip  beets  which  yield  excellent  results.  The 
following  represent  the  best: 

Long  Blood  is  the  kind  most  grown  for  winter  use.  It 
grows  a  foot  or  more  in  length,  and  four  or  five  inches  in 
diameter,  mostly  beneath  the  earth.  It  is  a  good  keeper 
and  very  sweet. 

Early  Long  Blood  resembles  this;  but  about  half  the 
root  is  above  ground,  and  if  not  gathered  and  stored 
early,  is  more  exposed  to  injury  from  frost. 

Besides  the  above,  a  few  other  varieties  are  grown  in 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AXD    CULTURE. 


285 


portions  of  the  South,  and  are  strongly  recommended  by 
gardeners  because  of  certain  desirable  qualities.  One  of 
the  best  of  these  is 

Lentz  Beet. — Early  with  dark  blood-red  flesh;  tender 
and  sweet. 

The  beet  has  been  grown  extensively  in  this  country 

A  large  proportion 


1/    i 


Fig.  106— Klein  Wanzleben. 
Sugar  Beet. 


Fig.  107— Mammoth  Prize 
Long  Red  Beet  (Manzel-Wurzel). 


of  the  sugar  of  the  markets  of  the  world  now  is  produced 
from  certain  varieties  of  the  common  garden  plant,  which 
have  been  carefully  improved  by  selection  and  culture, 
until  pure  strains  have  been  produced  and  well  estab- 


286  GAKDEXIXG    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

lished.  The  external  form  and  color  of  the  beet  indicate 
these  distinguishing'  characteristics.  The  fine  flavor  of 
these  sugar  beets  also  make  them  excellent  for  table  use. 
The  two  varieties  generally  cultivated  in  this  country  are 
Klein  Wanzleben  and  Vilmorin  Improved. 

Culture. — The  beet,  being  a  native  of  the  sea-shore, 
abounds  in  soda,  which  can  be  supplied,  when  deficient, 
by  an  application  of  common  salt  the  autumn  before 
planting.  This,  and  leached  or  unleaehed  ashes,  will 
afford  nearly  all  the  inorganic  elements  of  the  crop.  A 
top  dressing  of  nitrate  of  soda  is  excellent.  But  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  let  the  chemical  come  in  contact 
with  the  foliage. 

The  main  summer  crop  of  beets  should  be  planted  when 
the  peach  and  plum  are  in  full  blossom.  A  few  Bas- 
sano  or  Early  Turnip  should  be  planted  a  few  weeks 
earlier,  and  of  other  kinds  successive  beds  may  be  made 
whenever  the  soil  is  in  a  suitable  state,  from  January 
until  the  summer  droughts  come  on.  Advantage  should 
be  taken  of  the  rains  that  usually  occur  about  the  last  of 
July,  or  early  in  August,  to  put  iu  a  crop  for  winter.  This 
crop  should  be  put  in  earlier  the  farther  northward  the 
locality.  At  New  York,  the  main  crop  is  planted  as  early 
as  the  middle  of  June,  about  three  and  a  half  months  be- 
fore killing  frosts.  This  last  planting  often  proves  a 
failure  in  the  dry  autumns  of  a  Southern  climate.  It 
generally  will  succeed  in  rich,  fine  soil. 

When  the  surface  soil  is  rich  and  the  bottom  poor,  it 
will  be  difficult  to  make  the  beet,  carrot,  and  other  tap- 
rooted  plants  produce  fine,  smooth  roots.  This  difficulty 
will  cease  if  the  ground  be  deeply  and  thoroughly  worked, 
mingling  the  soil  and  making  it  uniform  throughout,  and 
taking  care  to  place  at  the  depth  of  one  foot  below  the 
surface  a  layer  of  good  manure. 

The  best  beets  grow  in  sandy  bottom  lands,  but  any  soil 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION  AND   CULTUKE.  287 

will  answer  for  theui  if  deeply  and  thoroughly  worked 
and  well  manured.  This  is  necessary  with  all  tap-rooted 
plants,  and  especially  with  the  beet.  Beet  seed  is  some- 
what slow  in  vegetating,  and  the  later  sowings  may  be 
soaked  in  water  twenty-four  hours  before  planting,  and 
the  drills  well  watered  upon  the  seed,  which  is  then  cov- 
ered with  light  soil  pressed  gently  upon  the  seed — a  good 
method  of  planting  all  summer  crops.  Make  the  beds 
four  or  four  and  a  half  feet  wide,  for  convenience  of  culti- 
vating; spade  them  up  at  least  a  foot  deep — eighteen 
inches  is  still  better;  mix  in  a  good  supply  of  well-rotted 
manure  throughout,  if  the  ground  requires  it.  Rake  the 
ground  even  and  smooth,  and  mark  out  the  rows  twelve 
inches  apart  across  the  bed;  draw  the  drills  an  inch  and  a 
half  or  two  inches  deep,  in  which  drop  the  seed  two  inches 
apart,  and  press  the  earth  gently  upon  it.  When  the 
plants  are  up,  thin  them  to  eight  or  nine  inches  apart,  fill 
any  vacancies  by  transplanting,  and  keep  the  ground 
around  them  loose  and  free  from  weeds  until  matured. 

In  planting  crops  of  beets,  carrots,  and  parsnips,  partic- 
ularly the  two  latter,  sprinkle  a  few  radish  seeds,  if  you 
like,  and  the  ground  is  rich,  in  the  rows  to  distinguish 
them.  The  radishes  will  be  up  in  a  week,  and  the  ground 
can  be  hoed  or  weeded  without  any  danger  of  destroying 
the  young  plants.  Drills  can  also  be  made  between  every 
two  rows  of  beets,  making  a  drill  every  six  inches,  which 
can  also  be  sown  with  radishes  or  lettuce  plants,  which 
can  thus  be  grown  abundantly  between  other  crops  with- 
out loss  of  room.  But  a  rich  soil  is  required  to  bring- 
forward  both  crops  to  perfection. 

For  early  beets  it  is  well  to  prepare  a  good  bed  under 
glass  in  which  the  rows  should  be  marked  out  a  foot 
apart.  The  ground  should  be  deeply  spaded  and  thor- 
oughly manured.  Mark  out  your  rows  for  the  beets,  and 
between  the  first  two  draw  a  drill  in  which  you  can  sow 


288  GAKDEXLNG    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

your  Early  York  cabbage;  between  the  next  two  you  can 
raise  all  the  Butter-lettuce  you  wish  to  set  out  for  head- 
ing. In  the  rows  of  beets  themselves,  you  may  sprinkle 
a  few  radish  seed;  then  a  row  of  later  head-lettuce,  to- 
matoes, egg  plant,  peppers,  etc.  The  drills  retained  for 
the  beets  should  be  sown  in  this  climate  with  the  Bassano 
beet  about  the  tenth  of  January.  By  the  time  the  hard 
frosts  are  over,  the  beets,  cabbages,  etc.,  will  be  ht  to 
transplant.  Thin  out  to  six  inches  apart,  planting  out 
those  pulled  up  in  the  open  ground.  In  transplanting  the 
beet,  a  deep  hole  should  be  made  with  a  dibble,  and  the 
root  not  bent.  Those  that  remain  in  the  bed  will  soon 
come  into  use,  and  by  the  time  they  are  gone,  the  trans- 
planted ones  will  come  on  for  a  succession. 

The  winter  crop  should  be  secured  as  soon  as  the  first 
killing  frosts  occur,  as  the  sweetness  is  lost  by  remaining 
in  the  soil.  The  roots  should  be  taken  up,  dried  a  little, 
and  stored  away  in  casks  with  layers  of  dry  sand,  where 
they  will  keep  in  good  condition  until  spring.  The  mangel 
wurzel  beet  is  much  cultivated  in  some  countries  for 
feeding  stock,  and  is  very  good  for  the  table  when  young 
and  tender,  but  in  our  long  season  it  loses  its  sweetness 
before  winter.  Here  the  sweet  potato,  rutabaga,  and 
other  turnips  are  more  promising. 

The  Swiss  Chard,  or  White  Beet  (Beta  Cicla),  is  also 
called  the  Sea  Kale  Beet.  There  are  two  varieties — the 
white  and  the  green — which  receive  their  names  from  the 
color  of  the  foot-stalks  of  the  leaves.  Either  of  these  is 
good.  The  plant  very  much  resembles  the  common  beet, 
but  the  leaves  and  their  stalks  are  much  larger,  thicker, 
more  tender  and  succulent,  and  less  capable  of  resisting 
frost. 

The  root  of  this  plant  is  small,  coarse,  and  of  no  value; 
only  the  leaves  and  their  stalks  are  employed,  especially 
the  latter,  which  are  cooked  and  eaten  as  asparagus. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE. 


289 


The  culture  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  common  beet, 
except  the  plants  should  be  twelve  or  more  inches  apart. 
The  soil  may  be  richer  and  not  so  deep,  and  the  plants 
are  more  benefited  by  copious  watering,  especially  with 
liquid  manure.  For  winter  use, 
the  leaves  may  be  covered  with 
litter.  They  will  afford  blanched 
leaf  stalks  all  winter.  If  the  soil 
be  moist  and  kept  mellow  and 
free  from  weeds,  it  will  yield 
bountifully.  Salt  is  a  beneficial 
manure  for  this  crop,  applied 
while  preparing-  the  ground,  as 
it  keeps  it  moist.  It  is  singular 
that  a  plant  of  so  easy  culture, 
and  yielding  during  the  entire 
season  after  May  a  supply  of  the 
most  delicate  greens,  has  not 
come  into  more  general  cultiva- 
tion 

For  Seed. — Select  a  few  of  the 
finest-looking  roots  —  those 
smooth  and  well  shaped.  Plant 
the  different  varieties  as  far 
apart  as  possible;  indeed,  it  is 
better  to  save  the  seed  of  only 
one  kind  the  same  year  for  fear 
of  intermixture  and  degeneracy. 
Keep  them  free  from  weeds,  and 
tie  the  seed  stalks  to  stakes  to 
support  them.  Gather  and  dry  the  seed  as  soon  as  ripe, 
and  put  away  in  paper  bags.  Keep  dry,  and  they  will  be 
good  for  ten  years. 

Use. — The  young  and  tender  tops  of  the  common  beet, 
and  the  leaves  and  stalks  of  the  chards,  are  boiled  as  suni- 

19 


Fig.  108— Swiss  Chard. 


290  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

uier  greens,  or  of  the  latter  the  midrib  and  stalk  may  be 
peeled  and  boiled  separately  from  the  rest  of  the  leaf, 
and  prepared  as  asparagus,  for  which  they  are  an  excel- 
lent substitute.  Iu  gathering,  the  largest  outside  leaves 
should  first  be  taken,  and  the  inner  ones  left  to  increase 
in  size,  taking  care  to  gather  them  while  still  perfectly 
green  and  vigorous. 

When  common  beets  are  thinned,  the  young  beets 
pulled  up,  if  cooked,  tops  and  bottoms,  are  very  sweet  and 
delicate.  When  well  grown,  the  roots  give  an  agreeable 
variety  to  our  table  vegetables,  beiug  tender,  sweet,  aud 
considerably  nourishing.  They  also  make  an  excellent 
pickle.  If  eaten  moderately,  they  are  wholesome,  but  in 
too  large  a  quantity  produce  flatulence  and  indigestion. 

Marketing. — The  roots  are  pulled  when  not  quite 
grown,  at  a  period  when  they  are  crisp  and  tender.  The 
tops  are  cut  off  about  two  inches  from  the  root,  because 
if  cut  too  close  the  beet  will  lose  much  of  the  moisture 
before  it  reaches  the  market,  and  its  quality  will  be 
greatly  impaired.  With  some  gardeners  the  practice  is 
to  tie  four  of  the  roots  together  in  a  bundle  and  thus  ship 
to  market  the  first  three  weeks,  but  as  the  season  ad- 
vances the  beets  vary  in  size,  and  then  the  bunching  is 
discontinued,  and  the  roots  are  packed  in  well-ventilated 
barrels  or  bushel  baskets. 

BORECOLE. — ( Brassica  ohracea,  fimbriata.) 

This  plant,  known  also  as  Kale  and  German  Greens,  is 
the  easiest  cultivated,  and  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the 
cabbage  tribe.  It  has  large  curled  or  wrinkled  leaves, 
forming  an  open  head,  and  such  a  hardy  constitution  that 
it  resists  the  severest  frosts,  which  serve  only  to  improve 
it.  It  remains  green  and  eatable  all  winter  without  the 
least  protection  at  the  South,  and  in  the  Northern  States 
requires  only  a  slight  covering.    The  best  varieties  are : 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  291 

Early  Curled  Siberian,  or  Dwarf  German  Greens. 
Beautifully  curled,  and  known  in  some  sections  as  Blue 
Curled  Kale.  Very  hardy  and  makes  excellent  greens  for 
winter  and  spring  use. 

Dwarf  Green  Curled  Scotch  is  a  fine  winter  kale, 
and  is  superior  for  home  use.  After  frost  the  leaves  be- 
come very  tender,  and  produce  greens  of  fine  flavor.  The 
plants  grow  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet  high,  with 
an  abundance  of  beautifully  curled  leaves. 

Culture. — Raised  from  seed,  like  the  rest  of  the  cabbage 
tribe,  which  may  be  sown  in  April  with  the  winter  cab- 
bages and  treated  in  the  same  manner.  Transplant,  if  the 
Dwarf  Green  Curled,  into  rows  eighteen  inches  apart  and 
twelve  inches  in  a  row.  Give  it  a  good  soil.  The  other 
sorts  require  about  the  same  space  as  winter  cabbages. 
Borecole  may  be  sown  as  late  as  the  middle  of  August  in 
the  place  where  it  is  to  remain,  and  managed  like  the 
rutabaga  turnip.  Like  the  cabbage,  it  is  visited  by  the 
aphis  or  cabbage-louse,  and  caterpillar. 

Seed. — Manage  some  of  the  best  plants  as  cabbage. 

Use. — The  outside  leaves  can  be  cut  off  for  use  when 
from  seven  to  nine  inches  long,  but  they  will  be  coarse 
and  rank  until  mellowed  by  frost.  The  better  way  is  after 
frost  to  cut  off  the  hearts,  not  square  across,  but  with  a 
sloping  cut,  in  order  to  throw  off  the  rain,  and  the  stem 
which  is  left  will  throw  up  fresh  sprouts  for  a  succession. 
For  winter  and  spring  greens  this  vegetable  is  nearly 
equal  to  the  Savoy  cabbage,  after  the  frost  has  rendered 
it  sweet  and  tender. 

Marketing. — Barrels,  well  ventilated,  are  used  for 
shipping  this  vegetable  to  market.  The  kale  is  cut  when 
the  leaves  are  seven  to  nine  inches  long,  and  securely 
packed,  so  the  barrel  will  remain  full  when  it  reaches  its 
destination. 


292  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

BROCCOLI. — (Brassica  oleracca,  var.  Botrytis  asparagoides.) 

This  is  a  cultivated  variety  of  the  cabbage  resembling 
cauliflower,  from  which  it  differs  iu  its  undulating  leaves, 
its  larger  size,  and  the  color  of  some  of  its  varieties. 

It  is  supposed  to  have  originated  from  the  cauliflower; 
it  is  a  hardier  plant,  but  not  so  delicate  in  flavor.  It  has 
been  cultivated  about  two  hundred  years,  and  was  intro- 
duced into  England  from  Italy.  Broccoli  is  raised  more 
easily  than  cauliflower.  The  Early  Purple  Cape  broccoli, 
producing  largo,  brownish  heads,  very  close  and  compact, 
is  the  best  of  over  forty  sorts. 

It  requires  the  same  special  manures  as  cabbage  and 
cauliflower,  and  for  cultivation  sow,  transplant,  and  man- 
age like  late  cauliflower.  To  protect  from  insects  see 
Cabbage. 

I  st. — The  same  as  cauliflower,  to  which  it  is  inferior, 
and  where  that  succeeds  will  hardly  be  worthy  of  culture. 

Marketing. — Cut  off  most  of  the  leaves  around  the 
head  and  pack  in  vegetable  crates. 

BRUSSELS   SPROUTS. 

(Brassica  oleracca,  car.  tullata  gemmifera.) 
This  plant  is  a  hardy  variety  of  the  Savoy  cabbage, 
producing  an  elongated  stem,  often  four  feet  high  and 
crowned  with  leaves  similar  to  the  Savoy.  Small,  green 
heads  like  cabbages  spring  from  the  axils  of  the  stem 
leaves,  which,  dropping  off,  leave  the  little  heads  ar- 
ranged spirally  around  the  stem  as  the  plant  proceeds  in 
growth.  Brussels  Sprouts  are  raised  from  seed,  which 
may  be  sown  in  April.  Set  the  plants  in  rows  two  feet 
by  one  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  treat  in  all  respects  as 
directed,  for  winter  cabbage.  Cut  off  the  leaves  at  the 
top  of  the  stem  some  ten  days  or  a  fortnight  before  the 
little  heads  are  gathered,  and  use  for  greens. 

It  will  stand  the  winters  without  protection  south  of 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE. 


293 


Virginia,  but  the  product  is  rather  small,  and  the  plants 
are  very  subject  to  the  aphis  during  the  winter. 

The  Best  French  or  Kosebekky  is  the  variety  gen- 
erally planted  in  the  South. 

For  Seed. — Cut  off  the  top  of  the  stem  and  permit  the 
flower  stalks  to  spring  from  the  little  heads  only.     Keep 
at  a  distance  from  all  the  other       #>    p^WkMh 
varieties  of  Brassica,  in  order  to      W^"^.*^r^"''.'-J^)  ^ 
have  pure  seed.  <^v^r";    ^r^y^;^   ^\ 

Use. — The  top  boiled  for  win-  ^^^^^fef^1  ^^^ 
ter  greens  is  very  delicate  in 
flavor  and  similar  to  the  Savoy. 
But  the  little  sprouts  after  they 
have  been  touched  with  frost, 
which  very  much  improves  them, 
are  the  parts  most  used.  The 
sprouts  are  fit  for  use  all  winter. 

Marketing. — See  Borecole. 

CABBAGE. 

(Brassica  oleracea,  var.  capitata.) 
This  is  a  Cruciferous  biennial 
plant,   quite   hardy,    found   wild 
on      the      coasts     of     England, 


France,   and    many   other   parts 


Fig.  109— Brussels  Sprouts. 


of  Europe.  The  wild  variety  is  known  as  Sea  Cole- 
wort,  bears  but  a  fewT  leaves,  and  is  far  from  palatable, 
unless  boiled  in  two  waters  to  remove  its  saltness.  The 
cultivated  variety  was  probably  introduced  into  England 
by  the  Romans,  and  the  common  name  doubtless  comes 
from  the  Latin  Caput,  or  head.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  crops  in  cultivation.  Cabbages  are  eatable  almost 
from  the  time  they  leave  the  seed-bed  until  they  have 
acquired  a  hard,  close  head;   and  they  can  be  raised  on 


294 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


every  bit  of  otherwise  idle  ground.  They  can  be  planted 
between  beds  and  rows  of  anything  and  everything, 
to  be  eaten  as  greens  when  young,  or  left  to  head  on  the 
coming  off  of  other  crops,  and  if  there  should  be  a  super- 
abundance above  the  wants  of  the  family,  nothing  is 
better  for  the  cow  and  the  pig.  When  the  seed  are  care- 
fully selected  and  the  strains  are  preserved,  the  American 
seeds  are  superior  to  the  imported,  and  produce  finer  and 
larger  heads.  No  seed  for  late  cabbage  is  better  than  our 
own,  if  saved  from  fine,  large  heads.  But  all  the  late 
cabbages  in  hot  climates,  without  proper  care,  are  prone 
to  run  into  coleworts  or  "  collards." 
The  best  varieties  are  as  follows: 

Early  Jersey  Wakefield. — This  cabbage  has  taken 
the  place  in  recent  years  of  the  Early  York,  which  for 


Fig.  110— Early  Jersey  Wakefield  Cabbage. 

many  years  was  the  best  for  the  earliest  crop.  The  Wake- 
field is  a  conical  headed  cabbage,  and  the  outside  foliage 
permits  of  close  planting,  so  that  a  large  crop  may  be 
produced    from    an    acre    of   ground.     There  is  a  larger 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE. 


295 


headed  variety  of  the  Wakefield  called  Large  Early,  or 
Charleston  Wakefield,  but  rather  later  in  maturing. 

Early  Winnigstadt. — Stem  dwarf,  head  large,  broad 
at  the  base,  sharply  conical,  heart  firm,  boiling  tender; 
sown  late,  it  proves  a  good  winter  cabbage;  adapted  to 


Fig.  Ill— Matchless  Late  Flat  Dutch  Cabbage. 

sandy   soils;   about  three  weeks  later  than   the   early 
varieties. 

Henderson's  Early  Summer. — This  cabbage  comes  in 
just  after  the  Wakefield,  and  its  large,  well-shaped  head 
stands  the  summer's  heat  finely. 

Early  Flat  Dutch. — This  is  an  old  standard  variety 
and  well  suited  to  Southern  portions  of  the  country,  be- 


1^0  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

en  use  it  has  considerable  heat  resisting  properties.  The 
heads  are  flat  on  top,  and  of  large,  uniform  size. 

All  Seasons. — This  cabbage  is  good  for  fall,  winter 
and  summer  planting.  The  heads  are  large,  and  come 
into  use  nearly  as  early  as  the  Early  Summer. 

Express. — Four  or  five  days  earlier  than  the  Jersey 
Wakefield.  The  heads  are  exceedingly  firm  and  well 
shaped. 

Early  Drumhead. — The  heads  are  large  and  firm,  and 
withstand  the  heal  admirably,  thus  making  it  a  popular 
cabbage  in  many  sections  of  the  South.  It  matures  about 
ten  days  later  than  the  Wakefield,  and  is  therefore  an 
excellent  cabbage  to  follow  that  variety,  especially  the 
Charleston  Wakefield. 

Large  Early  York. — Is  robust,  bears  the  heat  well, 
and  will  often  continue  in  eating  all  summer. 

Fottler's  Improved  Brunswick  and  Succession  are 
fine  plants  and  much  alike. 

For  late  cabbages  the  following  are  well  suited  to  the 
South : 

Premium  Flat  Dutch. 

Large  Late  Drumhead. 

Red  Dutch  is  used  principally  for  pickling,  and  should 
be  sown  at  the  same  time  with  the  drumheads. 

SAVOY  CABBAGES.— (B.  oleracea,  var.  bullata-major.) 
These   differ    from    the   preceding   in    their   wrinkled 
leaves.    The  varieties  are  hardy,  being    rendered    more 
sweet  and  tender  by  frost.    The  only  two  worthy  of  cul- 
ture are: 

Curled  Savoy. — An  excellent  winter  variety,  much 
improved  in  sweetness  and  tenderness  by  frost.  It  does 
not  head  firmly,  but  is  very  fine  flavored,  and  even  the 
outside  leaves  are  tender  and  palatable. 

Drumhead  Savoy  is  almost  as  large  and  firm  as  the 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE. 


297 


drumhead  cabbage,  and  keeps  very  well.  The  head  is 
round,  flattened  at  top.  It  is  nearly  as  delicate  as  the 
curled  variety. 

The  Savoys  are  not  as  certain  a  crop  as  the  other  cab- 
bages, but  far  superior  in  delicacy.  They  are  nearly  equal 
to  cauliflowers. 

Cult  tor. — An  analysis  of  different  varieties  of  the  cab- 
bage shows  them  all  to  contain  a  very  large  proportion  of 


Fig  112 — Savoy  Cabbage. 

nitrogen;  after  evaporating  the  water,  drumhead  cabbage 
gives  of  nitrogen  17.899  parts  in  a  hundred;  Savoy,  20.763; 
red,  16.212;  turnip-rooted,  19.052.  We  also  find  this  plant 
remarkably  rich  in  phosphorus  and  sulphur;  hence  its  un- 
pleasant smell  in  decay,  like  that  of  animal  matter.  It 
abounds  also  in  soda  and  potash.  Hence,  common  salt,  to 
yield  soda  and  chlorine,  wood  ashes  for  potash,  bone  for 
phosphoric  acid,  and  gypsum,  to  add  sulphur  and  lime, 
together  with  a  soil  saturated  with  manure  of  animals, 
especially  the  liquid  excretion,  all  come  in  play  in  making 


298  GAKDEiVING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

fine  cabbages.  Frequent  stirring  of  the  soil  will  also  rob 
the  atmosphere  of  its  ammonia  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  genus  to  which  the  cabbage  belongs  (Brassica) 
embraces  also  the  Turnip,  Borecole,  Broccoli,  Cauliflower. 
Brussels  Sprouts,  etc.,  and  the  following  observations 
apply  to  the  whole  of  them. 

For  the  seed-bed  the  soil  should  be  a  moist  loam,  but 
more  dry  in  the  case  of  plants  which  are  to  stand  the 
winter.  For  final  production  most  plants  of  this  genus 
like  a  fresh,  very  rich,  moderately  clayey  loam.  A  moist, 
cool  bottom  suits  them  admirably;  such  of  them  as  are  to 
stand  the  winter  in  the  open  ground  should  be  grown  in 
a  lighter  soil,  not  over  rich.  Good,  well-decomposed 
stable  manure  is  usually  employed  iu  preparing  the  soil 
for  this  genus.  Pure  hog  manure  is  by  some  considered 
objectionable,  as  it  is  said  to  cause  any  of  the  cabbage 
tribe  to  become  clump-rooted  and  lose  their  regularity 
of  shape.  A  plentiful  application  of  salt  the  autumn 
before  planting,  say  at  the  rate  of  eight  or  ten  bushels 
per  acre,  is  very  beneficial  to  this  tribe,  as  it  destroys 
the  cutworm  and  keeps  the  soil  moist  and  cool.  Bone- 
dust,  and  especially  super-phosphate  of  lime,  has  a  very 
surprising  effect  upon  them,  far  more  than  analysis 
would  lead  one  to  suppose. 

The  ground  is  advantageously  dug  twice  the  depth  of  a 
spade,  and  should  be  well  pulverized  by  the  operation. 
All  of  the  cabbage  tribe  are  particularly  benefited  by  fre- 
quent and  deep  cultivation ;  they  especially  like  to  have 
the  soil  about  them  thoroughly  worked  while  the  dew  is 
on  them.  There  will  be  a  very  great  difference  in  the 
growth  of  two  plots  of  cabbages  treated  alike  in  other 
respects,  one  of  which  shall  be  hoed  at  sunrise,  and  the 
other  at  midday;  the  growth  of  the  former  will  surpris- 
ingly exceed  that  of  the  latter.  But  the  cabbage  tribe 
cannot  be  hoed  too  much  for  their  benefit  even  if  daily. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE.  299 

The  situation  must  be  opeu  and  free  from  all  shade  or 
drip  of  trees;  if  shaded  from  the  midday  sun,  it  is  an 
advantage,  but  it  must  not  be  by  trees.  In  the  shade  of 
trees  and  other  confined  situations,  they  are  much  more 
subject  to  be  infested  with  caterpillars,  and  to  grow 
weak  and  spindling.  In  planting  out,  all  that  have 
knotted  or  clumped  roots  should  be  rejected. 

Cabbage  seed  may  be  sown  early  in  September  or 
October  in  the  open  ground,  watering  in  the  evening 
when  dry,  as  it  usually  is  this  month.  The  seed  should 
be  sown  in  drills,  six  inches  apart,  and  one  inch  deep, 
and  the  ground  deeply  dug;  water  the  drills  before 
covering  the  seed,  unless  the  ground  is  moist.  Cover  with 
fine,  rich  soil,  pressed  lightly  upon  the  seed.  The  plants 
will  appear  in  about  a  week.  When  large  enough  to 
transplant,  they  can  be  set  very  thick  in  a  cold  frame  or 
box,  to  stand  over  the  winter.  Cover  over  with  glass,  or 
boards  if  you  have  not  glass,  during  severe  weather,  but 
give  air  every  mild  day,  and  set  out  when  the  weather 
grows  mild  in  the  spring. 

From  Washington  southwards,  a  still  better  way  than 
putting  the  plants  in  a  frame,  is  to  throw  a  piece  of 
ground  into  high  ridges,  two  feet  apart,  running  east  and 
west.  On  the  south  side  of  these  ridges  set  out  the  plants 
a  foot  apart,  so  that  they  will  be  shielded  from  the  cold 
north  winds,  and  enjoy  the  full  warmth  of  the  sun.  Plant 
on  the  sides  of  the  ridges  and  not  in  the  trench.  When 
the  weather  grows  severe  in  December,  cover  slightly 
with  straw  or  litter;  remove  it  when  mild  weather  re- 
turns, and  cultivate  as  usual,  gradually  levelling  the 
ridges,  and  you  will  have  cabbages  earlier  than  by  any 
other  mode.  The  ground  should  be  good.  If  you  raise 
your  plants  in  the  cold  frame,  they  will  be  ready  to  trans- 
plant from  the  20th  to  the  last  of  February.  They  will 
be  verv  liable  to  be  eaten  off  bv  the  cutworm  when  trans- 


300  GAEDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

planted.  There  are  two  modes  of  preventing  this.  The 
best  method  is  to  sow  the  ground  intended  for  cabbage, 
the  autumn  after  being  spaded  up,  with  salt  at  the  rale 
of  eight  bushels  per  acre.  If  you  have  not  already  sown 
your  cabbage  plot  with  salt,  there  is  another  plan  to  keep 
off  the  cutworm,  equally  successful.  Throw  your  ground 
into  ridges  and  trenches  sixteen  inches  apart;  let  these 
trenches  be  at  least  six  inches  deep.  In  the  bottom  of 
these  transplant  your  cabbages,  one  foot  apart.  Some 
use  a  dibble,  but  a  trowel  is  much  better,  as  it  does  not 
leave  the  soil  hard.  Prepare  your  ground  in  dry  weather, 
but  choose  a  moist  day  for  transplanting.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  wet  the  roots  before  planting  out.  When  they 
get  rooted,  stir  the  soil  gently  about  them,  but  do  not  fill 
up  the  trenches  until  the  plants  are  so  large  that  there  is 
no  danger  of  the  worm.  This  method  of  protecting  cab- 
bages was  pointed  out  to  me  by  a  negro  gardener  several 
years  since,  and  I  have  tried  it  repeatedly.  The  worm 
will  not  go  down  into  the  trenches  to  destroy  the  plants. 

Mr.  Weed,  entomologist  of  the  Mississippi  Experiment 
Station,  makes  an  excellent  suggestion  for  destroying  the 
Harlequin  or  terrapin  bug.  He  recommends  the  planting 
of  mustard  between  the  rows  of  cabbage.  The  bugs  will 
gather  on  the  mustard  in  preference  to  the  cabbage,  and 
the  plants  can  be  pulled  up  and  burned,  or  the  mustard 
mnj  be  sprayed  with  pure  kerosene. 

When  the  plants  get  strong  the  ground  should  be 
deeply  and  repeatedly  hoed.  Do  this  while  the  dew  is 
on,  and  retain  its  ammonia  in  the  soil.  The  cabbage  is 
partial  to  moisture,  so  hoe  it  frequently,  and  when  you  go 
out  in  the  morning,  you  will  find  the  plot  moist  with  dew, 
while  the  unstirred  soil  around  is  dry  as  ever.  The  only 
secret  in  raising  early  cabbage  is,  set  your  plants  in  rich 
ground  and  stir  the  mil.     On  poor  ground  (and  even  on 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AXD    CULTURE.  301 

rich,  if  half  tended)  they  will  run  into  collards.  Stir  the 
soil,  and  less  manure  is  required. 

If  the  fall  sowing  has  been  neglected,  sow  the  seeds  in 
January  or  early  in  February  in  a  cold  frame,  as  directed 
in  the  article  on  the  Beet;  or  they  may  be  sown  in  the 
open  ground  when  the  heavy  frosts  that  freeze  the  soil  are 
over,  and  covered  with  litter,  if  protection  is  needed 
against  unseasonable  frosts,  to  be  removed  when  the 
danger  is  over.     Transplant  and  cultivate  as  above. 

For  the  middle  crop  to  last  through  the  summer,  the 
seed  can  be  sown  as  above,  or  at  any  time  until  the  middle 
of  April.  The  cultivation  is  the  same,  except  that  the 
plants  should  be  set  about  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches 
apart.  The  varieties  will  not  head  unless  the  ground  be 
rich,  rather  moist,  and,  above  all,  diligently  worked. 

Sow  the  late  crop  about  the  first  of  April.  It  is  sown 
the  first  of  May  near  New  York,  but,  sown  at  that  season 
in  the  South,  it  is  not  certain  to  come  up.  If  seed  of  any 
of  the  cabbage  tribe  bo  sown  alter  the  weather  grows 
warm,  it  must  be  watered  in  the  drill,  or  covered  Avith 
rich,  fresh  earth,  which  must  be  pressed  upon  it  by  walk- 
ing on  a  board,  and  it  must  be  shaded  by  a  covering  of 
boards  or  pine  brush  during  the  da}',  removing  it  at  night, 
until  the  plants  get  a  little  established.  If  the  weather  is 
warm  and  wet,  the  covering  may  be  dispensed  with.  They 
should  not  be  transplanted  until  July  or  August.  Let 
the  ground  be  well  spaded,  and  thoroughly  manured.  The 
plants  must  be  set  in  the  ground  up  to  the  first  leaf,  no  matter 
how  long  the  stem  man  he,  or  they  will  not  head.  They  also 
require  a  rich  soil,  but  not  from  fresh  manure.  The 
manure  for  the  cabbage  crop  should  be  thoroughly  de- 
composed, or  the  plants  will  be  covered  with  aphides  or 
cabbage  lice.  The  best  way  is  to  throw  the  ground  into 
ridges  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet  apart,  making  the 
trenches    between    more  or  less  deep,  according  to.the 


302  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

length  of  the  stems;  wet  the  roots  thoroughly,  and  trans- 
plant in  moist  weather,  doing  it  carefully  with  a  trowel, 
and  when  the  ground  gets  dry,  draw  the  earth  level, 
which  should  just  reach  up  to  the  lower  leaves,  not  all  at 
once,  but  gradually.  If  you  have  not  late  plants,  sow 
Large  Yorks  or  Winnigstadts,  in  July  here,  or  June  north- 
Avard,  and  good  heads  of  a  smaller  size  can  be  produced. 

The  soil  for  cabbages  cannot  be  made  too  rich.  The 
plants  demand  a  large  supply  of  nitrogenous  manure. 
The  application  of  lime  once  in  five  years  will  repay  the 
gardener. 

After  the  late  cabbages  are  transplanted,  let  them  be 
well  cultivated  by  deep  and  frequent  hoeing,  and  do  not 
strip  off  the  lower  leaves  if  you  wish  them  to  head. 

To  Preserve  Cabbage. — Heel  them  up  to  their  lower 
leaves  in  a  dry  situation,  on  the  north  side  of  a  fence  or 
building,  and  cover  slightly  with  plank,  straw,  or  pine 
brush,  to  keep  them  from  freezing  and  thawing  during 
the  winter.  It  is  not  the  frost,  however,  but  the  sun  upon 
them,  while  frozen,  that  does  the  injury.  Iu  Virginia  and 
northward,  dig  a  trench  on  a  gentle  slope,  and  lay  two  or 
three  bean  poles  in  the  bottom;  on  these,  beginning  at  the 
upper  end,  lay  the  cabbages,  head  downward,  a  little 
sloping,  so  that  the  water  may  run  out  from  the  heads. 
Cover  now  with  earth  a  few  inches  thick,  forming  a  sharp 
ridge  about  their  roots,  which  should  be  made  firm  by 
treading  or  beating.  Begin  at  the  lower  end  and  dig  out 
as  wanted  for  use. 

Seed. — Set  out  some  of  the  best  heads  in  the  spring  at 
a  distance  from  turnips  and  all  other  members  of  this 
family,  or  they  will  intermix.  Of  the  late  varieties,  home- 
grown seed,  if  pure,  is  the  best.  Support  the  stems  as 
they  rise  by  stakes,  and  gather  the  seed  before  it  scatters. 
Seed  will  keep  four  years. 

Use. — Cabbage,  as  an  article  of  food,  is  not  so  remark- 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE.  303 

able  for  its  fattening  properties  as  for  its  power  of  supply- 
ing strength  for  labor  by  producing  muscle  and  bone, 
which  it  owes  to  its  richness  in  blood-forming  material, 
abouuding  iu  nitrogen,  phosphates,  and  sulphur.  Hence 
it  is  very  nutritious  for,  and  much  relished,  by  laboring 
people  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  but  is  apt  to  disagree 
with  those  of  quiet  and  sedentary  habits.  With  the  latter 
it  is  more  wholesome  and  digestible  if  eaten  uncooked.  Many 
persons  can  eat  "  cold  slaw  "  with  impunity  that  are 
unable  to  use  boiled  cabbage  without  great  inconven- 
ience. It  is  by  many  much  relished  when  made  into  sauer- 
kraut.    It  is  also  pickled. 

Marketing. — In  gathering  the  cabbage  care  must  be 
exercised  in  the  selection  of  those  which  give  firm  heads. 
Most  of  the  outer  leaves  are  taken  off,  just  a  few  being 
left  to  prevent  the  head  bruising  in  transportation;  the 
stem  is  also  cut  off  close.  Barrels  are  generally  used  in 
shipping  with  stout  cloth  tied  over  the  end  and  several 
holes  cut  in  the  sides  to  give  sufficient  ventilation.  The 
cabbage  should  be  packed  strong  and  securely  in  the  bar- 
rels, using  considerable  force,  so  that  there  will  be  no 
displacement  in  transit,  and  the  chances  for  bruising  will 
be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  It  is  unwise  to  pack  different 
varieties  in  the  same  barrel;  separate  the  varieties  as 
well  as  assort  the  sizes  and  better  prices  will  result  when 
the  shipment  reaches  market.  Crates  are  used  in  some 
sections  of  the  South  for  sending  cabbage  to  the  market, 
but  they  do  not  seem  to  give  as  good  satisfaction  as  do 
the  barrels. 

CARROT.— (Daucus  Carota.) 

The  carrot  is  a  hardy,  umbelliferous  biennial,  found 
wild  in  Great  Britain,  as  well  as  in  this  country,  growing 
in  sandy  soil  or  by  road-sides.  The  root  of  the  wild  plant 
is  small,  white,  dry,  woody,  and  strong  flavored;  while 


304 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


that  of  the  cultivated  variety  is  large,  succulent,,  and 
generally  of  a  reddish  yellow  or  pale  straw  color.  The 
cultivated  carrot  is,  however,  thought  to  have  been 
~~m~±  brought  into  Europe  from  the  island 

W  of  Crete,   where   it  was  early   culti- 

vated.    It  was  carried  to  England  by 
**3^  .,  Flemish    refugees    in    the    days    of 

Elizabeth,  and  the  leaves  wore 
thought  beautiful  enough  to  be  used 
in  ladies'  headdresses.  Cultivation 
has  changed  a  wild,  worthless  plant 
into  a  most  nutritious  root. 

M.  Vilmorin,  of  Paris,  has  done 
the  same  in  our  day,  and  from  the 
wild  plant  by  selecting  seed,  in  three 
generations  produced  roots  as  large 
as  the  best  garden  carrots,  the  flavor 
of  which,  by  most  of  those  who  have 
tasted  them,  is  considered  superior 
to  the  old  varieties.  (Bon  Jardinier.) 
The  best  varieties  for  the  garden 
are: 

Early  Horn,  which  is  very  early, 
high  colored,  and  sweeter  than  other 
varieties.  It  does  not  grow  very  long, 
and  may  be  known  by  its  conical  root 
shortening  abruptly  to  a  point.  It 
will  grow  closer  together,  and  is  bet- 
Fig.  113— Rubicon  Half  ter  on  shallow  soils  than  other  kinds, 

Long  Orange  Carrot.       except 

Early  French  Short  Horn,  which  is  an  earlier  and 
superior  variety  of  the  above,  and  for  an  early  crop  the 
best. 

Altringham. — Color,  bright  red,  and  growing  with  the 
top   an   inch   or   two   above   ground,   which   sometimes 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND   CULTUEE.  305 

freezes  in  very  severe  winters,  if  left  in  the  ground,  as  is' 
usual  with  this  crop  in  Southern  gardens.  Of  excellent 
quality. 

Long  Orange. — Is  paler  in  color,  and  of  great  length, 
the  root  not  above  the  ground.  It  is  next  in  quality  to 
the  above,  and  best  for  winter  use  where  the  crop  is  to  be 
left  in  the  ground. 

Half  Long  Danvers. — Of  good  quality ;  thick  root  and 
very  productive.  One  of  the  most  popular  kinds  among 
gardeners.     The  color  is  bright  orange. 

Analysis  shows  that  lime,  potash,  soda,  sulphuric  acid, 
and  chloride  of  sodium  or  salt  abound  in  the  ashes  of  this 
plant.  The  salt  and  lime  mixture,  composted  with  leaf- 
mould  or  swamp  muck,  a  little  plaster  of  Paris,  bone-dust, 
and  wood  ashes,  are  the  special  manures  needed. 

Culture. — Carrots  like  a  light  and  fertile  soil,  dug  full 
two  spades  deep  for  the  long  varieties,  as  they  require  a 
deeper  soil  than  any  other  garden  vegetables.  The  manure 
should  be  put  as  near  the  bottom  as  possible,  not  less 
than  eighteen  inches  from  the  surface;  but  the  soil  should 
be  fertilized  by  a  previous  crop,  if  fine,  smooth  roots  are 
desired. 

In  the  Southern  States  carrots,  for  the  early  crop,  may 
be  sown  in  October  or  the  first  of  November,  and  again 
from  Januaiw  to  April  inclusive,  after  which  the  seed 
comes  up  badly.  At  New  York,  the  late  crop  is  sown  in 
June  for  winter  use,  and  for  the  early  crop  they  sow  in 
September,  and  protect  it  a  little  with  litter  through  the 
winter. 

Late-sown  seed  do  not  vegetate  freely.  Sow  in  drills 
fifteen  inches  apart;  cover  the  seed  half  an  inch  deep  with 
fine  soil,  and  for  the  late  crop,  if  the  ground  is  dry,  water 
the  seed  before  covering,  and  after  a  few  hours  press  the 
earth  upon  the  seed  with  a  roller  or  plank.  Thin  the 
young  plants  to  six  inches  apart.  In  short,  the  culture 
20 


306  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

of  the  carrot  is  just  that  of  the  beet.  Six  hundred 
bushels  have  beeu  produced  from  oue  acre.  The  car- 
rots need  uot  be  pulled  at  the  South,  but  may  be  left 
safely  in  the  ground  to  draw  as  wanted  for  use  during  the 
winter.  In  severe  weather,  they  may  be  protected  by  a 
covering  of  litter;  but  it  is  hardly  necessary,  except  for 
the  Altringham.  At  the  North,  they  are  stored  in  cellars 
or  in  piles,  covered  with  straw  and  earth,  like  the  potato. 

For  Seed. — Leave  some  of  the  finest  roots,  protected 
with  litter,  Avhere  raised,  to  blossom  and  seed  the  next 
summer;  save  only  the  principal  umbels.  Each  head 
should  be  cut  as  it  turns  brown,  dried  in  the  shade,  rub- 
bed out,  and  dried  in  paper  bags.  The  seed  will  not  vege- 
tate if  more  than  two  years  old. 

Use. — The  carrot  is  a  very  wholesome  food  for  man  or 
beast.  It  is  a  valuable  addition  to  stews  and  soups,  and 
is  also  boiled  plain,  pickled.  Boiled  or  grated,  it  is  an 
excellent  poultice.  The  grated  root  is  often  added  to 
cream  to  improve  the  color  of  winter  butter.  One  carrot, 
grated  into  cold  water,  will  color  cream  enough  for  eight 
pounds  of  butter,  without  any  injury  to  the  flavor.  One 
bushel  of  boiled  carrots  and  one  of  corn  are  said  to  be 
worth  as  much  as  two  bushels  of  corn  to  feed  to  pigs. 
They  are  excellent  for  feeding  horses  and  milch  cows,  and 
for  this  purpose  are  the  most  profitable  of  all  roots  in 
deep,  fertile  soils. 

Marketing. — The  roots  should  be  well  washed  and 
tied  in  bunches  of  six  and  neatly  trimmed.  Pack  in  crates 
securely  to  prevent  movement  in  shipping  and  thus 
bruising. 

CAULIFLOWER. — (Brassica  olcracca,  rar.  botrytis.) 

This  plant  is  a  biennial,  and  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land from  the  Island  of  Cyprus,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
seventeenth  centurv.    It  is  a  kind  of  cabbage  with  long, 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AXD    CULTURE.  307 

pale-green  leaves,  surrounding  a  mass  or  head  of  white 
flower  buds — in  short,  "  a  giant  rose  wrapped  in  a  green 
surtout,"  but  much  more  like  a  mass  of  fresh  curds  than 
a  rose.  Since  its  introduction,  it  has  been  much  improved 
by  the  skill  of  the  gardener.  The  seed  is  generally  im- 
ported from  Europe. 

There  are  several  varieties,  of  which  Early  Erfurt  and 
Snowball  are  the  best. 

Cauliflower  requires  the  same  manures  as  cabbage. 
There  is  much  less  difficulty  in  its  cultivation  near  the 
sea  shore  than  inland.  The  ground  should  receive  a  dress- 
ing of  common  salt. 

Culture. — Cauliflowers  are  sown  at  two  periods  for  the 
early  and  late  crop.  For  the  former  sow  early  in  Septem- 
ber thinly  in  drills  six  inches  apart,  in  rich,  light  soil,  and 
if  the  ground  is  too  dry  and  hot,  water  the  seed  in  the 
drill  before  covering;  cover  with  fine,  light  soil,  and  shade 
with  a  mat  until  the  seeds  are  just  beginning  to  come  up 
(not  longer).  When  the  plants  are  three  inches  high,  in 
the  colder  localities,  they  are  taken  up  carefully  and  pot- 
ted singly  in  small  pots,  three  in  a  pot  where  the  quart 
size  is  used.  Instead  of  potting,  they  may  be  set  out  in 
a  cold  frame  or  pit  four  inches  asunder,  to  remain  until 
spring  opens,  giving  them  meanwhile  all  the  air  the 
weather  will  admit  to  harden  them.  They  will  stand  light 
frosts  without  injury.  As  early  as  safe,  remove  the  sashes 
entirely  a  few  days,  take  them  up  from  the  bed  with  a 
transplanter  with  balls  of  earth,  or,  if  in  pots,  divide  the 
ball  carefully  if  it  contains  more  than  one  plant,  and  set 
them  out  in  very  rich  ground  twenty  by  twenty-four 
inches  apart,  inserting  their  stems  in  the  earth  nearly  to 
the  first  pair  of  leaves.  Shield  them  with  plant  protectors 
from  heavy  frosts. 

In  milder  localities,  as  the  coast  and  middle  section  of 
the  more  Southern  States,  the  plants,  when  taken  up,  are 


308  GARDENING    FOB    THE    £OUTH. 

set  out  in  rows  where  they  are  to  remain,  four  inches 
apart  in  the  row  and  the  rows  four  feet  apart;  they  are 
protected  during  frosts  and  heavy  storms  by  hoops  and 
mats,  or  by  a  covering  of  four  planks  a  foot  wide  to  each 
row.  These  are  supported  by  rafter-like  supports,  every 
five  or  six  feet,  to  which  one  of  the  planks  is  nailed  on 
each  side,  while  the  others  are  movable  and  are  taken  off 
in  all  mild  weather.  The  ends  are  closed  with  plank. 
Instead  of  plank,  white  cotton  cloth,  prepared  with  lin- 
seed oil,  affords  a  suitable  covering.  They  must  have  air 
and  light  at  all  times  when  practicable.  Slugs  must  be 
watched,  whether  wintered  thus  or  in  a  hot-bed.  They 
may  be  driven  off  by  sprinkling  the  soil  and  plants  with 
quicklime.  As  early  as  may  be  safe  in  February,  prepare 
the  soil  between  the  rows,  which,  during  the  winter, 
should  have  been  protected  from  treading  by  a  coat  of 
leaves,  or  a  few  old  plank,  and  plant  another  row  therein 
with  the  plants  twenty  inches  apart.  Thin  the  plants  that 
were  wintered  to  twenty  inches,  taking  them  up  with  a 
transplanter,  and  plant  out  those  not  required  for  the  in- 
termediate row  in  a  plot  prepared  for  the  purpose.  Shade 
a  little  with  plant  protectors  until  established,  if  there  is 
danger  of  their  flagging;  afterwards  cultivate  them  as 
cabbage. 

For  the  late  crop  sow  in  the  manner  above  directed  at 
the  same  time  with  winter  cabbage,  from  April  to  July. 
An  ounce  of  seed  will  yield  three  or  four  thousand  plants. 
The  seed-bed  should  be  of  light,  rich  soil,  and  when  the 
plants  are  two  or  three  inches  high,  they  should  be  taken 
up  and  set  out  in  a  bed  four  inches  apart,  shading  them 
until  again  established,  or,  if  the  weather  is  too  dry  and 
hot,  thinned  to  that  distance  in  the  seed-bed.  They  should 
be  taken  up  with  balls  of  earth  in  a  transplanter  and 
planted  out  at  the  same  time  with  winter  cabbage,  in 
rows  twenty  by  twenty-four  inches  apart.    Protect  them 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE.  309 

from  the  cutworm  and  insects  in  the  same  manner.  If 
possible,  give  them  a  plot  of  moist  bottom  soil,  made  very 
rich  with  well-decomposed  manure.  Water  freely  when 
needed,  which,  in  dry  weather,  is  every  other  day  at  least; 
if  with  liquid  manure,  so  much  the  better.  Let  them 
never  suffer  from  drought ;  they  will  show  when  they  need 
water  by  their  drooping-  leaves.  Soapsuds  is  an  excellent 
application.  Keep  the  ground  hoed  thoroughly  about 
them,  especially  the  day  after  each  watering,  that  it  may 
not  bak 

The  hills  should  be  hollowed  about  the  cauliflower  like 
a  shallow  basin,  to  retain  moisture.  The  head  ma}T  be 
blanched  by  bending  the  leaves  and  confining  them 
loosely  with  a  string.  They  will  head  in  succession  during 
the  autumn.    On  protection  from  insects,  see  "  Cabbage." 

When  a  cauliflower  has  reached  its  full  size,  which  is 
shown  by  the  border  opening  as  if  about  to  seed,  the  plant 
should  be  pulled,  and  if  laid  entire  in  this  state  in  a  cool 
place,  may  be  kept  several  days.  It  should  be  pulled 
in  the  morning,  for  if  gathered  in  the  middle  or  evening 
of  a  hot  day,  it  boils  tough.  When  there  is  danger  of 
severe  frost  injuring  the  cauliflowers  that  have  not 
already  headed,  they  may  be  protected  by  pine  boughs  or 
empty  boxes  or  barrels  where  they  stand,  or  pulled  up 
with  the  earth  attached  to  the  roots,  and  removed  to  a 
cellar  or  out-building,  where  they  will  flower  in  succes- 
sion. In  the  low  country  this  will  hardly  be  necessary. 
The  spring  crop  is,  I  believe,  more  certain  in  low  sections. 

For  Seed. — Set  out,  in  spring,  some  of  the  finest  heads, 
writh  fine,  close  flower-buds,  and  proceed  as  with  cabbage. 
It  is  very  liable  to  intermix  with  the  other  Brassicas;  so 
that  it  is  best  to  depend  upon  foreign  seed.  Seed  will 
keep  three  or  four  years. 

Use. — The  heads  or  flowers  boiled,  generally  wrapped 
in  a  clean  linen  cloth,  are  served  up  as  a  most  delicate 


310  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

dish.  "r  Of  all  the  flowers  in  the  garden,"  says  Dr.  John- 
son, "give  me  the  cauliflower."  It  is  one  of  the  very 
best  of  vegetable  products,  and  so  prized  wherever 
known.  It  is  nutritious  and  wholesome  even  for  invalids. 
beside  being  a  very  ornamental  addition  to  the  table. 

To  Cool:. — Cut  off  the  green  leaves,  and  look  carefully 
that  there  are  no  caterpillars  about  the  stalk;  soak  an 
hour  in  cold  water,  with  a  handful  of  salt  in  it;  then  boil 
them  in  milk  and  water,  and  take  care  to  skim  the  sauce- 
pan, that  not  the  least  foulness  may  fall  on  the  flower.  It 
must  be  served  up  very  white,  with  sauce,  gravy,  or 
melted  butter. — Mrs.  Hole. 

Marketing. — The  cauliflowers  are  cut  with  two  loaves 
left  on  each  to  fold  over  the  tender  heads  to  prevent 
bruising  in  shipping.  Each  head  is  wrapped  in  paper  and 
carefully  packed  in  bushel  crates,  with  a  sheet  of  brown 
paper  between  each  layer.  Thorough  ventilation  must  be 
had  in  the  package  or  spoiling  will  result  before  the 
market  is  reached. 

CELERY. — (Apium  graveolens.) 

Celery  is  a  hardy,  biennial,  Umbelliferous  plant,  a 
native  of  Britain,  where  the  wild  variety,  called  Small- 
age — a  coarse,  rank  weed  with  an  unpleasant  smell  and 
taste — is  found  growing  in  low,  marshy  grounds,  and  by 
the  sides  of  ditches. 

There  are  several  varieties,  some  of  which  have  hollow 
stalks.  None  but  those  which  are  solid  are  worthy  of 
notice.   Among  the  best  are: 

White  Plume. — An  early  form  which  has  self-bleach- 
ing properties.  It  was  first  introduced  in  1884,  and  lias 
become  quite  a  popular  variety  among  some  gardeners. 
It  can  be  bleached  without  high  banking.  The  objection 
made  against  this  form  is  its  poor  keeping  qualities.     It 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE. 


311 


cast.  *m^4mm 

1    for      RWB 

m 


should  not,  therefore,  be  planted  for  a  late  winter  crop. 
The  plant  is  often  of  strong  flavor,  which  is  objectionable. 

Golden  Self-Blanching. — This  also  requires  com- 
paratively little  banking-,  and  produces  crisp,  large  and 
solid  plants  of  fine 
flavor.  Very  few 
plants  are  better 
adapted  to  garden 
culture.  The  flavor 
is  excellent,  of 
rich,  nutty 
Well  adapted  for 
the  "  New  Celery 
Culture  "  method. 

Golden  Heart. 
In  1886  this  was 
one  of  the  most 
popular  varieties, 
and  it  is  still  hold- 
ing a  strong  posi- 
tion with  garden- 
ers. An  excellent 
winter  keeper. 

Giant  Paschal. 
This  is  of  French 
origin  and  is  large, 
silver  white,  and 
very  productive.  It 
blanches  quite  readily,  and  retains  its  freshness  a  long 
time.  The  stalks  are  large,  solid  and  fine  flavored.  The 
Giant  Paschal  is  a  selection  from  the  Golden  Self-Blanch- 
ing; has  the  qualities  of  the  latter,  but  is  a  better  keeper 
and  is  larger. 


Fig.  114— Giant  Paschal  Celery. 


(312) 


Plate  3— Golden  Self-Blanching  Celery. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  313 

Giant  White  Solid. — This  celery  attains  a  height  of 
three  feet,  and  is  well  suited  to  the  South,  since  it  grows 
moderately  well  in  a  warm  climate. 

Sandiungham  or  In  co  mi' Ait  able. — Is  an  old  variety  of 
tine  qualities.  It  has  been  cultivated  for  over  thirty 
years. 

Culture. — The  soil  for  fine  celery  must  be  rich  in  pot- 
ash, lime,  phosphoric  acid  and  chloride  of  potassium.  But 
it  will  not  do  to  depend  upon  special  manures  alone,  with- 
out the  addition  to  the  soil  of  well-rotted  animal  manures. 

Celery  flourishes  best  in  a  soil  moist,  friable,  and  rather 
inclining  to  lightness.  It  likes  a  cool,  moist,  but  not 
wTet  soil.  There  are  several  modes  of  cultivation.  The 
common  mode  is  to  sow  the  seed  in  April  thinly  in 
drills  eight  inches  apart.  As  celery  is  a  long  while  vege- 
tating in  the  open  air,  it  is  desirable  to  sow  the  early  crop 
under  glass.  Let  the  seed-bed  be  very  rich,  and  if  not 
sufficiently  moist,  sprinkle  the  drills  well  before  covering, 
and  cover  thinly  with  light,  sifted  soil.  Shade  the  bed 
on  sunny  days,  and  admit  mild  rains  and  warm  dews,. and 
keep  all  close  in  cool  weather  until  the  young  plants  make 
their  appearance.  Unless  managed  as  directed  for  fine 
flower  seeds,  celery  will  not  readily  come  up.  Water 
must  be  given  from  a  fine  rosed  pot  if  the  soil  is  dry. 

The  old  way  is  to  plant  in  trenches,  a  foot  deep,  well 
manured  at  the  bottom,  and  to  earth  up  gradually,  as  the 
plants  make  their  growth.  This  plan  is  now  abandoned 
by  our  best  growers,  and  instead  the  method  given  by 
the  well-known  authority,  Mr.  Peter  Henderson,  in  his 
valuable  work  called  "  Gardening  for  Profit, "  is  adopted 
by  many  gardeners.  There  is  also  another  method  called 
the  "  Newr  Celery  Culture,''  which  will  be  described 
further  on. 

Celery  may  be  planted  any  time  from  the  middle  of 
June  to  the  middle  of  August;    but  the  time  we  most 


314  GARDEXIXG    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

prefer  is  during  July,  as  there  is  but  little  gained  by 
attempting  it  early.  In  fact  I  have  often  seen  plants 
raised  in  hot-beds  and  planted  out  in  June,  far  sur- 
passed both  in  size  and  quality  by  those  raised  in  the 
open  ground  and  planted  a  month  later.  As  I  have 
already  said,  it  requires  a  cool,  moist  atmosphere,  and 
it  is  nonsense  to  attempt  to  grow  it  early  in  our  hot 
and  dry  climate;  and  even  when  grown,  it  is  not  a 
vegetable  that  is  ever  very  palatable  until  cool  weather. 
This  experience  well  proves,  for  although  a  few  bunches 
are  exposed  for  sale  in  August  and  September,  there  is 
not  one  root  sold  then  for  a  thousand  that  are  sold  in 
October  and  November.  Celery  is  often  grown  as 
a  "  second  crop  " — that  is,  it  follows  after  the  spring- 
crop  of  beets,  onions,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  or  peas, 
which  are  cleared  off  and  marketed,  at  latest,  by 
the  middle  of  July;  the  ground  is  then  thoroughly 
plowed  and  harroAved.  No  additional  manure  is  used, 
as  enough  remains  in  the  ground  from  the  heavy  coat 
it  has  received  in  the  spring,  to  carry  through  the 
crop  of  celery.  After  the  ground  has  been  nicely  pre- 
pared, lines  are  struck  out  on  the  level  surface,  three  feet 
apart,  and  the  plants  set  six  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  If 
the  weather  is  dry  at  the  time  of  planting,  great  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  roots  are  properly  "  firmed." 
Our  custom  is,  to  turn  back  on  the  row,  and  press  by  the 
side  of  each  plant  gently  with  the  foot.  This  compacts 
the  soil  and  partially  excludes  the  air  from  the  root  until 
new  rootlets  are  formed,  which  will  usually  be  in  forty- 
eight  hours,  after  which  all  danger  is  over.  This  practice 
of  pressing  the  soil  closely  around  the  roots  is  essential  in 
planting  of  all  kinds,  and  millions  of  plants  are  annually 
destroyed  by  its  omission.  After  the  planting  of  the 
celery  is  completed,  nothing  further  is  to  be  done  for  six 
or  seven  weeks,  except  running  through  between  the  rows 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE. 


315 


with  the  cultivator  or  hoe,  and  freeing  the  plants  of  weeds 

until  the}'  get  strong  enough  to  crowd  them  down.    This 

will  bring  us  to  about  the  middle  of  August,  by  which 

time  we  usually  have  that  moist    and    cool    atmosphere 

essential  to  the  growth  of  celery.     Then   we  begin  the 

"  earthing  up,"  necessary  for  blanchiug  or  Avhitening  that 

which  is  wanted  for  use  during  the 

months    of    September,  October,  and 

November.      The    first    operation    is 

that  of  "  handling,"  as  Ave  term  it — 

that  is,  after  the  soil  has  been  drawn 

up  against  the  plant  with   the   hoe, 

it  is  further  drawn  close  around  each 

plant   by   the    hand,  firm    enough   to 

keep  the  leaves  in  an  upright  posit 

and    prevent    them    from 

This    will    leave    them    as 

Figure  116. 


Fig.  115— Tying  Up  Celery. 

E.  C.  Green,  of  the  Ohio  Station,  proposes  the  use  of 
paper  string  to  wind  around  the  plants  before  banking 
up  with  earth,  and  the  string  is  left  on  the  plants  since 
the  moisture  will  soon  so  dampen  it  as  to  cause  it  to  fall 
off  as  the  celery  grows.  The  great  advantage  in  the  use 
of  string,  as  shown  in  Figure  115,  consists  in  the  fact  that 
the  earth  is  not  allowed  to  enter  the  center  of  the  plants 
while   banking  up,  and   thus  injure  the  quality  of  the 


31G 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    ^OETII. 


celery.  The  figure  is  self-explanatory.  A  tin  can  is  tied 
to  the  wrist  in  which  the  cord  of  string  is  placed,  and  the 
end  is  fed  through  a  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  can.  Care 
must  be  exercised  not  to  bruise  the  plants  while  tying  up, 
otherwise  disease  will  set  in  and  the  crop  will  be  ruined. 


>r& 


wwmm 


:  S^fef  v^-— - 


vi|J  '■ 


_;^£- 


Fig.  116— Celery  After  "Handling." 

The  plants  being  placed  in  an  upright  position,  more  soil 
is  drawn  against  the  row  (either  by  the  plow  or  hoe,  as 
circumstances  require),  so  as  to  keep  the  plant  in  this 
position.      The    blanching    process    must,    however,    be 


Fig.  117— Celery  Earthed  Up. 

finished  by  the  spade,  which  is  done  by  digging  the  soil 
from  between  the  rows  and  banking  it  up  clear  to  the  top 
on  each  side  of  the  row  of  celery,  as  in  Figure  117.  Three 
feet  is  ample  distance  between  the  dwarf  varieties,  but 


VEGETABLES DESCBIPTION    AKD    CULTUEE.  317 

when  large  sorts  are  used  the  width  between  the  rows 
must  be  at  least  four  and  a  half  or  five  feet,  which  entails 
much  more  labor  and  loss  of  ground.  For  the  past  eight 
years  I  have  grown  none  but  the  dwarf  varieties,  and  have 
saved,  in  consequence,  at  least  one-half  in  labor,  and  one- 
third  in  ground,  while  the  average  price  per  root  in  mar- 
ket has  been  always  equal  and  occasionally  higher  than 
for  the  tall  growing  sorts. 

Some  authorities  recommend  the  use  of  12-inch  plank 
in  bleaching  celery,  one  placed  on  each  side  of  the  row, 
leaning  against  pegs,  and  with  a  few  inches  of  earth 
thrown  up  against  the  plank  to  hold  it  in  position.  It  is 
claimed  that  with  this  method  enough  of  the  light  is 
excluded  from  the  stems  of  the  plants  to  cause  them  to 
bleach. 

The  preparation  of  the  soil  and  planting  of  celery  for 
winter  use  is  the  same  in  all  respects,  except  that,  what  is 
intended  for  winter  need  never  be  "  banked  up  "  with  the 
spade.  It  merely  requires  to  be  put  through  the  handling- 
process,  to  put  it  in  a  compact  and  upright  position  pre- 
paratory to  being  stowed  away  in  winter  quarters.  This 
should  not  be  done  before  the  middle  of  September,  or 
just  long  enough  before  the  celery  is  dug  up,  to  keep  it 
in  the  upright  position. 

We  have,  however,  another  method  called  the  "  new 
celery  culture,"*  which  we  have  found  to  answer  very 
well  for  the  late  crop,  and  it  is  one  by  which  more  roots 
can  be  grown  on  the  same  space  and  with  less  labor  than 
by  any  other.  The  best  results  will  be  secured  by  culti- 
vating a  self-bleaching  variety,   like  the   Golden   Self- 


*  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  in  1892  some  writers  on  horticulture 
published  an  account  of  this  method,  and  claimed  the  honor  of  the 
discovery,  calling  it  the  "  new  celery  culture,"  when,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  this  method  was  in  use  in  1868,  at  the  time  the  second  edition  of  this 
book  was  issued. 


31S 


GAKJJKA'l.NG    l'OK    THE    bOUTH. 


Bleaching.  It  is  simply  to  plant  the  celery  one  foot  apart, 
each  ira[),  nothing  farther  being  required  after  planting, 
except  twice  or  thrice  hoeing,  to  clear  the  crop  of  weeds 
until  it  grows  enough  to  cover  the  ground.  No  handling 
or  earthing  up  is  required  by  this  method,  for,  as  the 
plants  struggle  for  light,  they  naturally  assume  an  up- 
right position,  the  leaves  all  assuming  the  perpendicular 
instead  of  the  horizontal,  which  is  the  condition  essential 
before  being  put  in  winter  quarters.  This  method  is  not 
quite  so  general  with  us  as  planting  in  rows,  and  it  is 
perhaps  better  adapted  for  private  gardens  than  for  mar- 


Fig.  118— Old  Method  of  Growing  Celery  in  Trenches.    (This 
is  also  used  for  winter  storage. ) 

ket;  as  the  plant  is  more  excluded  from  the  air,  the  root 
hardly  attains  as  much  thickness  as  by  the  other  plan. 

The  manner  of  preserving  it  during  the  winter  is 
very  simple,  but  as  the  knowledge  of  the  process  may 
not  be  well  understood  generally  by  market  gardeners, 
I  will  endeavor  to  put  it  plain  enough,  so  that  my 
readers  "  may  go  and  do  likewise."  In  this  locality 
we  begin  to  dig  up  that  which  we  intend  for  winter 
use  about  the  end  of  October,  and  continue  the  work 
(always  on  dry  days)  until  the  20th  or  25th  of  Novem- 
ber, which  is  as  late  as  we  dare  risk  it  out  for  fear  of 
frost.  Let  it  be  understood  that  celery  will  stand  quite 
a  sharp  frost — say  10  or  even  15°,  while  20  or  25°  will 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE.  319 

destroy  it.  Hence  experience  has  taught  us,  that  the 
sharp  frosts  that  we  usually  have  during  the  early  part  of 
November,  rarely  hurt  it,  though  often  causing  it  to  droop 
flat  on  the  ground,  until  thawed  out  by  the  sun.  It  must, 
however,  never  be  touched  when  in  the  frozen  state,  or  it 
is  almost  certain  to  decay.  The  ground  in  which  it  is 
placed  for  winter  use  should  be  as  dry  as  possible,  or  if 
not  dry,  so  arranged  that  no  water  will  remain  in  the 
trench.  The  trench  should  be  dug  as  narrow  as  possible, 
not  more  than  ten  or  twelve  inches  wide,  and  of  the  depth 
exactly  of  the  height  of  the  celery — that  is,  if  the  plant  of 
the  celery  be  two  feet  in  length,  the  depth  of  the  drain  or 
trench  should  be  two  feet  also.  The  celery  is  now  placed 
in  the  trench  as  near  perpendicular  as  possible,  so  as  to 
fill  it  up  entirely,  its  green  tops  being  on  a  level  with  the 
top  of  the  trench.  Figure  118  represents  a  section  across 
a  trench  filled  with  celery  in  the  manner  just  described. 
No  earth  whatever  is  put  to  the  roots  other  than  what 
may  adhere  to  them  after  being  dug  up.  It  being  closely 
packed  together,  there  is  moisture  enough  always  at  tin1 
bottom  of  the  trench  to  keep  this  plant  at  the  cool  season 
of  the  year  from  wilting.  That  which  is  put  in  trenches 
about  the  25th  of  October  is  usually  ready  to  be  taken  up 
for  use  about  the  first  of  December,  that  which  is  put  in  a 
couple  of  weeks  later,  by  the  first  of  January,  and  the  last 
(which  we  try  always  to  defer  to  15th  or  20th  November) 
may  be  used  during  the  winter  and  until  the  first  of  April. 
For  the  first  lot,  no  covering  is  required,  but  that  for  use 
during  the  winter  months  must  be  gradually  covered  up, 
from  the  middle  of  December,  on  until  the  first  of  Jan- 
uary, when  it  will  require  at  least  a  foot  of  covering  of 
some  light,  dry  material — hay,  straw,  or  leaves — the  lat- 
ter perhaps  the  best.  I  have  said  the  covering  up  should 
be  gradual.  This  is  very  important,  for  if  the  full  weight 
of  covering  is  put  on  at  once,  it  prevents  the  passing  off 


320  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

of  the  heat  generated  by  the  closely  packed  mass  of 
celery,  and  in  consequence  it  to  some  extent  "  heats,"  and 
decay  takes  place.  Covered  up  in  this  manner,  it  can  be 
got  out  with  ease,  during  the  coldest  weather  in  winter, 
and  with  perfect  safety.  These  dates  of  operations,  like 
all  others  named  throughout,  are  for  this  latitude;  the 
cultivator  must  use  his  judgment  carefully  in  this  matter 
to  suit  the  section  in  which  he  is  located. 

To  Save  Seed. — Leave  some  plants  where  grown;  in  the 
latter  part  of  February  take  them  carefully,  cut  off  the 
outside  leaves,  and  remove  the  side  shoots,  and  plaut 
them  out  in  moist  soil,  one  foot  apart.  Select  those  which 
are  solid  and  of  middling  size.  Tie  the  seed-stalks  to 
stakes,  to  preserve  them  from  being  broken  off  by  violent 
winds.  After  the  flowers  open,  wThile  the  seed  is  swelling, 
if  dry  weather  occurs,  water  at  least  every  other  night. 
When  the  seed  is  dry,  it  may  be  rubbed  out  and  stored  in 
a  dry  place.    They  will  keep  good  four  years. 

Use. — Celery  has  some  little  nutriment,  but  is  culti- 
vated chiefly  as  a  luxury.  The  sweet,  crisp  stalks,  used 
raw,  with  a  little  salt,  form  a  most  grateful  salad.  It  is 
also  used  as  a  seasoning,  and  is  a  great  improvement  to 
soups  and  gravies.  A  few  plants  for  this  purpose  are  as 
necessary  and  wholesome  as  onions.  The  unblanched 
leaves  and  seeds  are  sometimes  employed  in  flavoring. 

Marketing. — The  celery  must  be  placed  on  the  market 
in  a  crisp  and  clean  condition,  free  from  all  "  stringiness," 
if  good  prices  are  desired.  There  seems  to  be  no  reason 
why  this  excellent  vegetable  should  not  be  so  successfully 
cultivated  in  the  South  as  to  compete  with  that  grown  at 
Kalamazoo.  Soil,  climate  and  other  conditions  are  cer- 
tainly favorable,  and  there  is  the  additional  advantage 
over  the  Northern  grower  in  the  earliness  of  the  Southern 
crop,  thus  permitting  the  truckers  in  the  South  to  place 
their  crop  on  the  market  several  days  ahead  of  those  in 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  321 

the  North.  There  is  also  a  rapidly  growing  demand  all 
over  the  South  for  this  vegetable,  and  the  home  consump- 
tion, therefore,  is  not  to  be  belittled. 

When  the  plants  are  taken  from  the  field  they  are 
washed  to  rid  them  of  all  particles  of  earth,  and  the  dead, 
discolored  and  green  leaves  are  pulled  off,  the  root  is  cut 
off  close  to  the  stalks,  if  intended  for  the  local  market. 
If  the  celery  is  to  be  shipped  some  distance  the  roots 
are  left  on  and  packed  in  a  moist  condition,  so  that  the 
plants  will  be  crisp  and  fresh  when  they  reach  their  desti- 
nation. It  is  advisable  to  dip  the  plants  in  water  before 
packing  to  insure  this  condition.  For  the  wholesale  trade 
it  is  customary  in  some  sections  to  tie  the  plants  in 
bundles — twelve  plants  to  the  bundle.  The  shipping  is 
done  in  crates,  or  barrels  well  ventilated. 

CELERIAC. — (Apium  graveolens,  var.  rapaceum.) 

Celeriac,  or  Turnip-rooted  Celery,  is  a  variety  of  celery 
which  forms  at  the  base  of  its  stem  an  irregular  knob, 
which  is  the  part  used,  either  cooked  or  raw,  in  salads. 
The  roots  have  been  grown  to  three  or  four  pounds 
weight.  It  is  sweeter,  but  not  so  delicate  as  common 
celery,  and  is  not  much  in  use,  except  in  climates  so  cold 
that  the  common  sort  cannot  be  easily  preserved  through 
the  winter,  while  this  can  be  stored  like  turnips. 

The  young  plants  of  celeriac  are  raised  exactly  like 
those  of  celery.  When  six  inches  high  they  are  fit  for  final 
transplanting.  Set  them  in  rows  two  feet  asunder,  and 
eight  inches  apart  in  the  rows  upon  the  level  ground,  or 
in  drills  drawn  with  the  hoe  three  inches  deep,  as  they 
require  but  little  earthing  up.  When  arrived  to  nearly 
their  full  size,  they  must  be  covered  over  with  earth  to 
the  depth  of  four  inches.  In  dry  weather  they  should  be 
watered  plentifully  every  evening,  as  they  like  even  more 
water  than  celery.  The  only  additional  attention  re- 
21 


322 


GARDENING    FOB    THE    !-OUTII. 


quired  is  to  keep  them  free  from  weeds.     The  plant  is 

inore  easily  cultivated  than  celery. 

Saving  Seeds. — The  directions  for  celery  arc  in  every 

respect  applicable  to  celeriac. 

Use. — The  stalks  are  used  for  seasoning  soups,  etc.,  the 

same  as  celery,  from  which  they  can  hardly  be  distin- 
guished. The  roots  are 
nice  boiled  tender,  cut 
in  slices  and  dressed 
like  turnips.  They  are 
often  made  into  a 
salad,  after  boiling 
them,  and  are  used  in 
seasoning  soups  or 
meat  pies. 

CHIVES  or  CIVES. 
(Allium  Schcenoprasum.) 

A  hardy,  perennial 
plant  of  the  onion 
tribe,  growing  wild  in 
the  meadows  of  Bri- 
tain, as  some  varieties 
of  the  same  genus  do 
in  this  country.  The 
bunches  are  made  up 
of  a  mass  of  little 
bulbs,  and  produce 
pretty  purplish  flowers 
early  in  summer. 
Culture. — Any  common  soil  will  answer.  Divide  the 
roots  in  autumn  or  spring,  and  plant  them  on  a  bed  or 
border,  in  little  bunches  of  ten  or  twelve  offsets,  in  holes 
made  with  the  dibble  ten  inches  apart.  If  kept  free  from 
weeds,  they  will  speedily  make  large  bunches,  a  few  of 


Fig.  119— Celeriac. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AXD    CULTURE.  323 

wliich  will  supply  a  large  family.  Cut  the  tops  smoothly 
off  near  the  surface,  when  wanted,  and  fresh  ones  will 
soon  spring  up.  Chives  make  a  very  pretty  edging  for 
beds  in  winter  and  spring.  Renew  every  four  years  by 
taking  up  and  dividing  the  roots. 

Use, — It  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  young  onions  in 
winter  and  spring  salading,  and  is  also  used  like  leeks 
and  onions  in  seasoning  soups,  gravies,  etc.  The  leaves, 
cut  up  fine  and  mixed  with  meal  and  water,  are  often  fed 
to  young  chickens  as  a  preventive  of  disease.  The  little 
bulbs  may  be  taken  up  and  stored,  and  are  a  tolerable 
substitute  for  small  onions. 

CORN,  SWEET  OR  SUGAR.— (Zca  maize,  var.  saccharata.) 

Indian  corn,  or  maize,  is  a  native  plant,  found  dis- 
distributed  in  all  the  milder  climates  of  America  at  its 
discovery.  There  are  six  varieties  or  classes  recognized 
as  belonging  to  the  genus  Zea,  viz.:  Sweet  corn  (me- 
charata),  Flint  corn  (indurata),  Pop  (everta),  Dent  corn 
(indentata),  Soft  corn  (amylacea),  Husk  corn  (vaginata). 

The  cultivation  of  the  sweet  corn  is  not  common  in  the 
South,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  difficult  to  secure  satisfac- 
tory crops  with  seeds  obtained  from  the  Northern  seed- 
men.  The  boll-worm  is  also  found  to  be  very  destructive 
to  sweet  corn,  more  so  than  it  is  with  the  field  varieties 
of  corn.  If,  however,  seeds  are  carefully  selected  from 
the  crops  of  two  or  three  years'  successive  growths  much 
more  satisfactory  results  may  be  expected,  from  the  fact 
that  the  plant  becomes  acclimated  by  this  series  of  culti- 
vation and  selection.  The  best  garden  varieties  of  sweet 
corn  are  as  follows: 

Crosby's  Extra  Early. — The  ears  are  rather  small, 
but  this  is  a  productive  variety;  rich,  sugary  flavor;  a 
dwarf  form  requiring  a  rich  soil.  This  is  one  of  the  old 
standard  varieties. 


324  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Stowell's  Evergreen. — A  general  favorite  among 
market  gardeners  because  of  its  excellent  qualities, 
adapted  to  home  use  and  for  shipping.  The  ears  are  large 
and  remain  longer  in  a  green  condition  than  is  the  case 
with  most  of  the  other  varieties.  The  grains  are  large, 
but  tender  and  sweet. 

Country  Gentleman. — The  cob  is  small  and  yields  a 
deep  grain  of  delightful  flavor  and  sweetness.  Three  or 
four  ears  are  generally  produced  on  each  stalk,  and  a 
well-matured  ear  is  about  eight  inches  long.  This  variety 
of  corn  closely  resembles  the  Shoe  Peg,  introduced  by 
Johnson  &  Stokes  some  years  since,  but  it  is  larger  than 
the  Shoe  Peg. 

Very  early  varieties  are:  Adams'  Extra  Early  and 
Marblehead. 

Medium  early  varieties  are:  Nonesuch,  Roslyn  Hybrid, 
Triumph,  p]gyptian. 

The  common  Dent  corn  of  the  South  better  endures 
intense  summer  heat,  and  will  supply  green  corn  for  the 
table  when  the  preceding  sorts  fail  from  drought.  It  is 
less  injured  by  the  corn-worm,  which  cuts  into  the  end  of 
the  ear,  than  Sweet  or  Sugar  corn. 

Maize  likes  a  soil  abounding  in  soluble  silica.  Gypsum 
and  ashes  are  the  best  special  manures.  Sweet  corn  has 
much  less  starch  than  the  other  varieties,  but  much  more 
sugar  and  extract.  It  has  also  a  greater  portion  of  dex- 
trine and  gum. 

Culture. — In  the  Northern  States,  a  dry  soil  and  a  hot 
season  are  required  to  produce  large  crops  of  corn.  At 
the  South  we  raise  far  better  crops  in  moist  seasons,  and 
on  moist  bottom  lands.  Rich,  deep  loam  affords  the  plant 
plenty  of  moisture  and  nourishment,  which  the  corn  likes. 
The  Extra  Early  and  Sugar  corn  will  bear  thick  planting. 
Plant  the  first  crop  in  the  open  air  when  the  peach  is  well 
in  bloom,  and  every  three  weeks  thereafter  until  July  at 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND   CULTURE. 


325 


New  York,  and  until  August  in  Georgia,  selecting  the 
early  sorts  for  the  first  and  last  plantings. 

The  early  crop  may  be  forwarded  a  month,  by  planting- 


Fig.  120— Sweet  Corn. 


in  boxes  (or  in  pots  under  glass  if  only  a  few  plants  are 
desired).  "  Prepare  boxes  about  four  feet  long,  three  feet 


32  G  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

wide,  and  five  inches  high.  Make  one  of  the  sides  so  that 
it  can  be  easily  removed.  Fill  these  boxes  with  loam 
mixed  with  some  manure.  Then  prepare  some  strips  of 
board  two  and  one-third  inches  wide,  five  inches  long,  and 
as  thin  as  the  blade  of  a  hoe.  Put  these  down  endwise 
into  the  loam,  so  as  to  divide  the  loam  into  squares  two 
and  one-half  inches  square  and  five  inches  deep.  (As  these 
squares  are  each  to  contain  a  hill  of  corn,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  thin  strips  are  to  prevent  the  roots  of  one  hill 
from  interfering  with  those  of  another.)  Place  these 
boxes  in  a  sunny  place,  well  protected  from  the  west 
wind,  and  about  a  month  before  the  usual  planting  time, 
plant  four  kernels  of  corn  in  each  one  of  these  squares. 
By  planting  time,  the  corn  will  be  five  or  six  inches  high. 
Having  prepared  the  ground  and  opened  the  hills,  take 
the  hills  of  corn  from  the  boxes  in  the  hand,  put  them  into 
the  prepared  hill,  press  the  earth  around  them,  and  the 
corn  is  at  once  planted  and  hoed  the  first  time.  It  would 
be  well  to  use  some  phosphate  of  lime  or  hen  manure,  so 
as  to  cause  the  corn  to  start  immediately.  In  a  short 
time  the  corn  will  be  as  large  as  usual  when  hoed  the 
second  time."  (New  England  Farmer.) 

Another  and  probably  simpler  method  is  in  the  use  of 
what  is  known  among  gardeners  as  "  dirt  bands."  Those 
are  thin  veneers  cut  so  as  to  fold  up  into  4  or  6-inch 
squares. 

The  ground  for  corn  should  be  deeply  plowed  or  spaded, 
then  laid  off  in  hills  three  feet  apart  each  way,  for  Sugar 
and  Early  corn,  leaving  three  or  four  plants  in  a  hill, 
while  two  plants  in  hills  five  feet  apart  is  near  enough  for 
large  Southern  corn.  If  the  ground  is  not  rich,  place  a 
shovelful  of  decayed  manure  to  each  hill.  Fresh  dung- 
can  be  immediately  applied  to  corn,  if  spaded  before  plow- 
ing, and  well  turned  in.  Plant  four  or  five  grains  to  a 
hill,  and  cover  two  inches  deep.    When  they  are  up,  thin 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  327 

as  above.  Hoe  deeply  and  often  while  young,  and  draw 
the  earth  each  time  a  little  about  the  stalk;  but  after  the 
plant  is  six  inches  high,  shallow  surface  culture,  killing 
the  wTeeds  and  loosening  the  surface  without  cutting  the 
main  roots,  is  all  that  is  needed. 

Corn  is  a  gross  feeder,  and  cannot  get  too  much  manure. 
A  sprinkling  of  guano  about  the  hill  is  beneficial,  if  it 
does  not  touch  the  seed.  Growth  is  much  improved  by 
giving  the  plants,  at  their  first  hoeing,  a  teaspoonful  of 
gypsum  to  each  hill,  or  a  pint  of  ashes,  or  as  much  of  the 
charcoal  poudrette.  Chickens,  birds,  and  squirrels  can  be 
prevented  from  pulling  up  the  corn  by  soaking  it  in  water 
twelve  hours  before  planting,  then  stirring  the  seed 
briskly  in  a  vessel  containing  a  little  tar  mixed  with 
warm  water;  thus  giving  each  grain  a  thin  coat.  After 
which,  for  convenient  handling,  it  is  to  be  rolled  in  as 
much  ashes,  gypsum,  or  lime  as  it  will  take  up.  One-half 
bushel  of  corn  requires  a  pint  of  tar  and  a  gallon  of  warm 
water,  with  as  much  ashes  as  will  stick  to  the  grain.  It  is 
effectual  against  birds,  squirrels,  etc.,  while  the  seed 
vegetates  freely,  if  previously  soaked. 

For  Seeds. — Select  the  best  ears  from  stalks  that  bear 
more  than  one. 

Use. — Indian  corn  is  prepared  in  a  greater  variety  of 
ways  for  the  table  than  any  other  grain.  In  fact,  the 
modes  of  preparation  alone  would  almost  fill  a  volume. 
That  from  the  garden  is  mostly  boiled  green.  Green  corn 
can  be  very  easily  preserved  for  winter  use,  by  cutting  off 
the  kernels  after  boiling,  and  drying  in  a  shaded,  airy 
place.  Or,  cut  the  corn  off  the  cob,  and  put  it  in  a  stone 
jar,  with  a  handful  of  salt  to  a  pint  of  corn.  When  the  jar 
is  full,  put  a  weight  on  it.  When  you  wish  to  use  it,  re- 
move a  little  of  the  top,  and  wash  and  soak  it  over  night. 
Sugar  corn  is  the  best  for  this  purpose. 


328  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

CORN  SALAD.— (  Yahrianella  olitoria.) 
Corn  Salad,  Fetticus,  or  Lamb's  Lettuce,  is  a  small 
annual  plant,  a  native  of  English  wheat-fields.  It  has 
long,  narrow  leaves  of  a  pale  glaucous  hue,  and  very 
small,  pale-blue  flowers.  It  has  long  been  cultivated  in 
English  gardens  as  a  winter  and  spring  salad.  There  is 
also  a  round-leaved  variety,  with  leaves  thicker,  and  of  a 
darker  green. 

Culture. — Corn  salad  likes  a  loam  of  moderate  fertility, 
not  too  heavy.  It  is  raised  from  seed,  one  quarter  of  an 
ounce  of  which  will  sow  a  bed  four  feet  by  fifteen.  Sow 
seed  of  the  preceding  year's  growth,  at  intervals  from 
August  until  frost,  in  drills  six  inches  apart.  Thin  the 
plants  as  wanted  for  consumption  to  four  inches  in  the 
drills,  and  keep  free  from  weeds  by  frequent  hoeing. 
Gather  the  leaves  to  eat  while  young,  taking  the  outer 
ones,  as  with  spinach.  It  will  be  fit  for  use  all  winter, 
wh^re  the  ground  keeps  open.  A  spring  sowing  may  be 
mp^e  among  the  earliest  crops,  put  in  for  later  use  when 
desired.  Allow  some  of  the  plants  to  shoot  up  to  seed, 
which,  as  they  shed  easily,  is  shaken  out  upon  a  cloth 
spread  under  the  plants.    It  keeps  six  years. 

Use. — It  is  used  during  winter  and  early  spring  to  in- 
crease the  variety  of  small  salads,  and  as  a  substitute  for 
lettuce.    In  France  it  is  boiled  like  spinach. 

COWPEA.— ( Vigna  Catjang.) 

Several  species  are  largely  cultivated  in  most  Southern 
climates,  the  vines  of  which  are  used  for  forage,  and  the 
seeds  employed  not  only  for  stock  feeding,  but  the  finer 
kinds  are  used  largely  as  substitutes  for  kidney  beans  as 
food  for  man. 

The  cowpea  is  generally  considered  to  be  a  field  crop, 
and  it  would  seem  to  have  no  place  in  a  treatise  of  the 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND   CULTURE.  329 

character  of  this  book,  but  its  value  in  restoring  fertility 
to  soils  is  so  great  that  gardeners  will  find  it  a  useful 
plant.  It  occupies  a  prominent  position  as  a  soil  restorer 
from  the  fact  that  it  has  the  property  of  drawing  a  large 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere  and  giving  it  to 
the  soil  when  the  plants  are  turned  under.  The  best 
varieties  to  use  for  green  manuring  are  Black,  Clay,  Red 
Ripper,  Unknown.  Some  of  the  varieties  of  cowpeas  are 
also  excellent  for  table  use,  viz. :  Large  lady,  Small  lady, 
Mush,  Rice,  Sugar  and  White  Crowder. 

CHESS,  AMERICAN.— (Barbarea  vulgaris.) 

A  biennial  Cruciferous  plant  with  yellow  flowers,  the 
radical  leaves  of  which  are  lyre-shaped,  and  the  upper 
ones  pinnatifid,  and  cultivated  in  some  gardens  as  a  win- 
ter salad.    Often  called  water-cress  at  the  South. 

Sow  either  in  drills  or  broadcast  in  a  moist  place,  the 
last  of  August,  September,  or  early  in  October,  giving 
water  in  dry,  hot  weather.  Let  the  plants  remain  six  or 
eight  inches  apart.    Preserve  a  few  good  plants  for  seed. 

Use. — It  is  generally  liked  as  a  winter  or  early  spring- 
salad,  somewhat  like  the  water-cress,  but  more  bitter. 

The  Winter  Cress  (B.  proecoco)  resembles  the  foregoing, 
but  is  a  perennial  plant  with  larger  leaves.  The  use  and 
culture  are  the  same.    Less  bitter  than  the  former. 

CRESS,  GA'RD'E'N.—fLepidium  sativum.) 
Cress,  or  Peppergrass  as  it  is  called,  from  its  pungent 
taste,  is  a  hardy  Cruciferous  annual,  probably  from  Per- 
sia, and  has  been  cultivated  in  England  since  1548. 

There  are  three  sorts,  of  which  the  common  Curled  and 
the  Normandy  are  the  best;  the  broad-leaved  sort  is 
coarse  and  inferior. 

Culture. — Cress  likes  a  light,  moist  mould,  and  in  sum- 
mer a  shady  border  is  to  be  preferred.    It  is  propagated 


ooO  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

from  seed,  which,  to  keep  up  a  succession  of  young  and 
tender  plants,  must  be  sown  every  week  or  two.  Give  it 
rich  earth,  that  it  may  grow  rapidly,  it  is  best  when  an 
inch  high,  but  is  generally  allowed  to  get  two  or  three 
times  as  high  before  cropping.  Begin  to  sow  for  winter 
and  early  spring  use  in  ►September  and  October,  in  a  shel- 
tered situation;  and  again  as  soon  as  spring  opens,  sow 
in  the  open  ground,  in  drills  six  or  eight  inches  apart ; 
cover  lightly,  and  pat  over  the  bed  with  the  back  of  the 
spade  to  press  the  earth  upon  the  seed.  Keep  the  ground 
clear,  and  water  in  dry  weather.  It  can  be  had  all  winter 
by  the  use  of  the  cold  frame  or  hot-bed;  give  plenty  of 
air.  A  few  rows  left  uncut  will  produce  seed  abundantly. 
Use. — The  young  and  tender  leaves  give  to  salads  a 
warm,  pungent,  and  agreeable  taste.  It  is  generally  used 
in  connection  with  lettuce  and  other  salads. 

CUCUMBER.— ( ( 'urn in  is  sativus.) 

This  is  a  tender,  trailing  annual,  with  rough,  heart- 
shaped  leaves,  and  yellow  flowers,  growing  wild  in  the 
East  Indies,  etc.  It  is  one  of  the  earliest  garden  products 
mentioned  in  history,  and  was  cultivated  from  the  earliest 
times  in  Egypt.   (X timbers,  xi.,  5.) 

It  has  always  been  a  vegetable  peculiarly  grateful  and 
refreshing  to  the  inhabitants  of  warm  climates.  It  was 
probably  early  brought  into  Europe  from  the  East,  as  it 
was  in  high  esteem  among  the  Romans,  who  so  well  uu- 
derstood  its  culture,  that  it  appeared  on  the  tables  of  the 
wealthy  in  winter.  In  England,  it  was  introduced  as  early 
as  1573.    The  best  varieties  are: 

Early  Cluster,  named  from  the  fruit  growing  in 
clusters.  The  fruit  is  about  five  inches  long,  very  produc- 
tive. Early  Russian  is  a  smaller  and  earlier  Variety  of 
this. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE.  331 

Early  Frame. — Six  to  ten  inches  long,  much  used  for 
forcing;  productive  and  good. 

Improved  Early  White  Spined. — Is  of  fine  form,  deep 
green  color,  which  it  retains  well;  a  good  bearer,  and  of 
the  best  quality. 

Long  Green. — Dark-green  color;  grows  about  ten 
inches  in  length  and  bears  abundantly;  excellent  for 
pickles;  late. 

Thorburn's  Everbearing  is  an  excellent  cucumber. 


Fig.  121— Arlington  White  Spine  Cucumber. 

Gherkin  (C.  Anguria). — A  different  species  with  small 
and  prickly  fruit,  and  leaves  much  divided,  or  palmated; 
a  great  bearer,  but  used  only  for  pickling. 

There  are  many  other  varieties,  some  of  which  grow 
two  feet  long,  crisp  and  well  flavored,  but  the  foregoing- 
are  the  best  for  family  use. 

For  market  use  the  Boston  White  Spine  is  generally 
planted. 

Culture. — The  seed  may  be  planted  here  about  the  first 
of  April,  or  as  soon  as  it  can  be  done  with  safety,  as  this 


332  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

plant  is  very  tender,  and  will  not  bear  the  least  frost.  If 
the  soil  be  deeply  trenched,  the  plant  is  much  less  suscep- 
tible to  drought.  After  the  ground  is  prepared,  dig  out 
holes  fifteen  inches  deep  and  the  same  in  diameter,  six 
feet  apart  each  way,  and  partly  fill  them  with  well-decom- 
posed manure.  A  little  guano,  or  fowl  manure,  sprinkled 
in  the  bottom  of  the  hills  will  be  ver}r  beneficial.  Do  not 
use  fresh  manure,  or  the  plants  will  die  out.  Cow  manure 
and  leaf-mould  are  excellent.  Cover  over  the  manure 
with  rich,  mellow  loam.  Raise  the  hills  a  little  above 
the  surface,  and  put  eight  or  ten  seeds  in  the  hill;  cover 
an  inch  deep,  and  when  they  get  rough  leaves,  pull  up  the 
poorest  plants,  and  leave  but  three  in  the  hill.  Old  seed 
is  much  better  than  new,  as  the  plants  will  run  less  to 
vines  and  bear  better. 

The  Florida  Experiment  Station  recommends  the  fol- 
lowing as  an  excellent  fertilizer: 

"  Available   phosphoric   acid,  7  per  cent. 

Potash,  8  per  cent. 

Nitrogen,  5  per  cent. 

"  Fifteen  hundred  of  2,500  pounds  per  acre  will  be  re- 
quired on  most  lands.  If  the  land  is  rich  in  organic  mat- 
ter use  less  or  none  of  the  nitrogen.  A  tablespoonful  of 
nitrate  of  soda  sprinkled  about  the  hills  as  soon  as  the 
plants  are  up  will  hurry  them  along  out  of  danger  from 
insects.  Too  much  nitrogeneous  matter  makes  poor 
shippers  and  overgrown  sizes." 

As  soon  as  the  vines  get  rough  leaves,  nip  off  the  ex- 
tremities, to  make  them  branch  out,  and  they  will  fruit 
the  sooner.  This  is  called  stopping.  Cucumbers  are  very 
subject  in  cool,  dry  seasons  to  attacks  of  insects,  espe- 
cially the  striped  bug  and  the  cucumber  flea.  Dry  wood, 
ashes  or  air-slacked  lime,  dusted  thoroughly  upon  the 
plants  when  the  dew  is  on,  will  generally  repel  them,  and 
bring  the  plants  forward.     But  warm  rains  will   soon 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND   CULTURE.  333 

bring  up  the  plants  beyond  the  reach  of  the  depredators. 
If  they  do  not,  put  over  the  hills  boxes  covered  with 
milliner.  Hoe  frequently,  until  the  plants  cover  the 
ground.  The  Early  Cluster  should  have  the  hills  about 
four  feet  apart. 

After  the  first  planting  succession  crops  for  pickles  are 
put  in  up  to  July  near  New  York  city,  and  in  Georgia 
until  August.  At  the  South  the  melon  worm  makes  its 
appearance  in  July,  and  unless  the  cucumbers  are  gath- 
ered while  small,  they  will  be  injured  by  this  insect. 

Cucumbers  can  be  very  much  forwarded  by  planting 
them  in  boxes  covered  over  with  glass.  Two  seven-by- 
nine  panes  are  large  enough  to  cover  a  hill,  and  such  hills 
will  not  be  troubled  by  the  bugs,  while  the  seed  can  be 
put  in  four  or  five  weeks  earlier  than  otherwise.  The  seed 
can  also  be  planted  in  pots  under  a  frame,  or  in  a  green- 
house, to  be  turned  out,  when  the  weather  gets  favorable, 
into  the  open  air,  and  they  will  scarcely  show  they  have 
been  moved.  Or  they  can  be  raised  wholly  without  re- 
moval, in  hot-beds  made  as  directed  in  a  former  chapter. 
They  do  best  when  started  in  pots  placed  in  a  small  hot- 
bed, and  transplanted  when  the  leaves  are  two  or  three 
inches  broad  into  new  beds  of  a  larger  size.  They  must 
have  plenty  of  air,  and  be  placed  near  the  glass,  or  they 
will  be  drawn  up.  If  they  begin  to  grow  long-legged,  give 
them  more  air.  The  temperature  of  the  seed-bed  should 
range  between  65°  and  85°.  Always  water  the  plants 
with  tepid  water,  about  noon,  unless  in  mild  days,  when 
it  may  be  done  in  the  morning. 

Liquid  manure,  especially  guano  water,  is  very  bene- 
ficial. In  planting  in  the  bed  for  fruiting,  do  not  break 
the  ball  of  earth;  take  them  out  of  the  pots  carefully  at 
night,  water  gently,  keep  the  sash  down  the  next  day,  and 
shade  at  noonday,  to  keep  them  from  withering.  It  is 
necessary  the  beds  should  be  shaded  with  a  mat  during 


oo4:  GARDENING    FuK    TILE    SOUTH. 

the  middle  of  the  day,  when  the  sashes  are  kept  down, 
until  the  plants  get  well  established. 

Stopping  in  the  frame  is  still  more  important  than  in 
the  open  air.  The  temperature  now  must  be  kept  between 
70°  and  1)0°,  by  external  coatings  of  fresh  dung,  if  neces- 
sary. The  shoots  must  be  trained  regularly  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  bed.  Leave  only  two  or  three  main  branches 
to  each  plant,  removing  the  others  as  they  appear.  If  the 
plants  that  have  been  stopped  have  extended  their  run- 
ners three  joints  without  showing  fruit,  they  must  be 
stopped  again.  The  vines  should  blossom  in  a  month  from 
the  time  of  planting.  Impregnate  the  pistillate  or  female 
blossom  (which  may  be  known  by  its  having  fruit  at- 
tached), by  taking  the  staminate  blossom  and  placing  its 
center  within  that  of  the  pistillate  blossom.  They  may 
be  gathered  in  about  two  weeks  after  impregnation. 
Three  plants  are  sufficient  for  one  sash  of  the  usual  size. 

For  Seed. — Choose  some  of  the  finest  fruit  of  each 
variety  growing  near  the  root.  Do  not  raise  the  plants 
near  other  varieties,  or  the  seed  will  mix  and  deteriorate. 
Let  them  remain  until  they  turn  yellow,  and  the  footstalk 
withers;  cut  them  off  and  keep  in  the  sun  until  they  begin 
to  decay;  then  wash  the  seed  from  the  pulp,  and  spread 
it  out  to  dry.  It  will  keep  eight  or  ten  years,  and  is  even 
better  when  three  or  four  years  old,  as  the  plants  are  less 
luxuriant  and  more  productive. 

Use. — Cucumbers  are  a  very  popular,  but  not  very 
wholesome  vegetable.  They  are  of  a  cold,  wTatery  nature, 
and  many  persons  of  weak  constitution  cannot  eat  them 
without  positive  injury.  They  possess  scarcely  any  nutri- 
tive properties,  but  their  cooling  nature  renders  them  to 
most  palates  very  agreeable,  and  persons  in  good  health 
do  not  find  them  injurious.  They  are  eaten  raw,  fried, 
stewed,  and  pickled. 

Marketing. — The   well -grown    cucumbers   should   be 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    A.M.    CULTURE.  335 

selected  for  shipment  to  market.  They  should  be  green 
through  iu  cross  section,  and  should  be  of  such  a  size 
that  ninety  will  just  fill  a  bushel  crate;  the  form  must 
be  full  and  not  badly  shaped.  No  cucumber  of  a  yellow 
tint  must  be  placed  in  the  package  if  a  good  "rice  is 
expected. 

The  ordinary  vegetable  crate  is  used  for  shipping  this 
vegetable  to  the  market.  The  cucumbers  are  laid  in  close 
and  compact,  and  the  crate  filled  above  the  top;  then  the 
top  is  pressed  on,  so  that  the  vegetable  is  securely  packed, 
and  no  movement  becomes  possible  during  shipment. 

CHINESE  YAM.— (Dioscorea  Batatas.) 

A  perennial  plant  brought  from  China  to  France  in 
1850  or  1851  by  M.  de  Montigny,  the  French  Consul  at 
Shanghai.  It  has  annual  stalks  or  vines,  and  perennial 
tuberous  roots.  The  leaves  are  heart-shaped,  triangular, 
pointed  above,  ami  seven  or  eight  nerved.  The  length  and 
breadth  of  the  leaf  are  about  equal;  it  has  a  smooth  and 
glossy  surface,  and  is  of  a  deep  green  color.  Its  footstalks 
are  half  the  length  of  the  leaf,  furrowed,  and  of  a  violet 
color.  Its  flowers  are  dioecious,  and  of  a  pale  yellow 
color.  The  twining  stems  turn  from  left  to  right,  and 
grow,  if  staked,  at  least  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  and 
develop  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves  small  tubers,  the  size 
of  a  large  pea  or  kidney  bean,  which  drop  from  the  stem 
at  maturity. 

Culture. — The  small,  axillary  tubers  afford  the  readiest 
mode  of  propagating  the  plant,  though  the  largest  pro- 
duct seems  to  have  been  obtained  where  the  root  tubers 
were  cut  in  sections  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  long. 
These  should  be  planted  in  rich  ground  deeply  trenched, 
the  deeper  the  better,  and  then  laid  off  in  low  ridges  or 
beds  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  from  center  to  center.  On 
the  top  of  this  ridge  a  furrow,  three  inches  deep,  is  made 


336  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

with  the  hoe,  m  which  the  sets  are  planted.  This  should  be 
done  early  in  the  spring,  and  where  the  seasons  are  short 
the  plants  should  be  started  in  pots  to  be  planted  out 
when  danger  of  frost  is  over.  Keep  the  young  plants  free 
from  weeds,  and  cultivate  like  sweet  potatoes,  except  that 
no  earthing  up  is  required.  The  plant  likes  moisture,  and 
growth  is  arrested  in  dry  weather.  It  is  found  to  produce 
larger  roots  if  not  staked,  and  the  plant  is  allowed  to  fall 
upon,  and  shade,  the  ground.  Watering  in  dry  weather 
is  beneficial.  The  crop  should  not  be  gathered  until  after 
the  autumn  frosts,  and  roots  will  be  found  somewhere 
between  ten  and  thirty-six  inches  below  the  surface.  The 
whole  root  should  be  extracted,  as  the  lower  part  is 
always  the  largest  and  most  starchy.  This  should  be 
reserved  for  the  table,  while  the  upper  or  slender  part 
should  be  kept  for  propagation.  It  is  a  difficult  matter  to 
take  them  up  without  breaking,  as  they  often  grow  three 
feet  long.  If  not  required  for  immediate  use,  the  roots 
may  safely  remain  in  the  ground  until  spring,  or  may  be 
taken  up  and  stored.  The  deep  trenching  required  in 
preparing  the  soil,  and  the  great  labor  in  gathering  the 
crop,  will  prevent  its  extensive  cultivation. 

Use. — The  roots,  which  are  oblong  and  tapering,  are  the 
edible  part.  The  maximum  size  to  which  they  grow  is 
two  inches  in  diameter,  the  larger  end  tapering  upward 
to  the  size  of  the  finger.  They  are  covered  with  a  brown- 
ish-fawn-colored skin,  pierced  by  numerous  rootlets.  Un- 
der this  is  a  cellular  tissue  of  a  white  opal  color,  very 
crispy,  filled  with  starch  and  a  milky,  mucilaginous  fluid, 
with  scarcely  any  woody  fiber.  When  cooked,  it  boils  or 
bakes  quickly,  and  becomes  dry  and  mealy,  and  is  gene- 
rally preferred  to  the  Irish  potato,  which  it  resembles 
in  taste.  Each  plant  often  produces  several  tubers,  but 
generally  only  one,  ranging  in  weight  from  eight  ounces 
to  three  pounds.    It  is  more  nutritive  than  the  Irish 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND   CULTURE.  337 

potato,  which  it  may  possibly  rival  in  esteem  wherever 
labor  is  cheap  and  it  is  desirable  to  obtain  a  large  amount 
of  food  on  a  little  space. 

The  other  yams  (Dioscorca  sativa  and  alata)  are  culti- 
vated on  the  Gulf  coast  to  some  extent,  and  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  sweet  potato,  except  that  the  vines  are 
supported  by  a  stake  or  pole. 

D.  aculeata  sometimes  g 
often  weighs  thirty 
pounds.  The  roots  are 
cut  up  into  small  sets  and 
planted  in  rows  two  feet 
apart  and  eighteen  inches 
in  the  row,  and  by  for- 
warding them  in  pots 
upon  hot-beds  have  been 
grown  in  Europe  as  far 
north  as  Paris. 

EGGPLANT. 

(Solatium  melon  gen  a,  var. 

esculentum.) 
The  Eggplant,  or 
Guinea  Squash,  is  a  ten- 
der annual  from  Africa, 
introduced  into  England 
in    1597.       It    derives    its   Fig"  122~New  Jersey  Improved  Large 

Purple  Eggplant. 

most  common  name  from 

the  white  variety,  which,  when  small,  bears  a  close 
resemblance  to  an  egg.  When  first  introduced,  it  was 
not  regarded  with  much  favor,  but  is  now  rapidly 
working  into  general  esteem. 

Long  Purple  is  perhaps  the  best  kind  for  family  use, 
as  it  is  ten   days   earlier  than   the   other  varieties,  and 
though  not  growing  so  large,  is  very  prolific  in  fruit. 
22 


338  GAKDExXIXG    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Improved  New  York  Purple. — This  is  one  of  the  best 
varieties,  and  is  usually  the  kind  planted.  It  has  a  large 
fruit  of  an  oval  shape  and  deep  purple. 

Black  Pekin. — The  fruit  is  purplish-black,  smaller 
than  the  preceding;  solid,  smooth.  It  is  prolific  and  tine 
flavored. 

Culture. — Eggplants  require  a  light,  loamy,  rich  soil, 
to  bring  their  fruit  early  to  perfection.  They  like  the  soil 
manured  with  half-decayed  leaves,  well  dug  in.  To  have 
them  early,  sow  in  a  hot-bed,  or  in  a  cold  frame  under 
glass,  the  latter  part  of  February,  or  early  in  March.  The 
rows  may  be  six  or  eight  inches  apart,  made  shallow  and 
the  earth  pressed  upon  the  seed.  Keep  the  sash  carefully 
closed  until  the  plants  are  up,  and  then  give  air  in  warm 
days.  They  succeed  best  with  a  small  frame  to  them- 
selves, as  they  like  a  higher  heat  than  is  desirable  for 
other  plants.  As  very  few  plants  are  required,  they  may 
be  planted  in  a  small  box  without  bottom,  placed  on  the 
ordinary  hot-bed  and  covered  with  a  square  of  glass. 
Prick  them  out,  when  two  inches  high,  into  small  pots, 
and  afterwards  transfer  them  to  larger  ones,  as  directed 
for  the  tomato.  They  can  thus  be  planted  out  with  the 
ball  of  earth  entire.  Do  not  put  them  out  until  settled 
warm  weather,  for  if  the  plants  get  chilled  while  young 
their  growth  is  so  checked  that  they  may  never  fully  re- 
cover. 

The  plants,  when  young,  are  often  destroyed  in  a  clay 
or  two  by  a  minute  flea.  Keep  them  closely  covered  until 
well  out  of  the  seed-leaf,  and,  if  attacked,  sprinkle  them 
with  a  solution  of  aloes  or  quassia,  and  dust  them  with 
lime  and  sulphur. 

It  is  hardly  worth  while  to  sow  the  seed  in  the  open 
ground,  as  they  would  be  so  late  in  coming  into  use. 
Prepare  the  final  bed  for  eggplants  by  making  trenches 
three  feet  apart,  burying  in  them  old  cabbage  stumps, 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE.  339 

corn  stalks,  and  other  vegetable  refuse,  and  covering 
them  with  soil  twelve  inches  deep,  in  which  plant  out 
the  eggplants  two  feet  apart  in  the  row.  Water  abun- 
dantly until  established.  Keep  the  ground  well  hoed  and 
free  from  weeds,  and  earth  up  the  plants  a  little  from 
time  to  time.     Twelve  to  twenty  plants  will  be  enough. 

For  Seed. — Allow  oue  of  the  largest  fruits  from  a  pro- 
lific plant  to  ripen  seed.    It  will  keep  three  or  four  years. 

Use. — Eggplant  is  used  by  the  French  in  various  ways 
in  soups  and  stews,  but  generally  cut  iu  thin  slices,  and 
fried  in  batter.  They  are  not  commonly  liked  at  first,  but 
after  a  few  trials  become  very  agreeable  to  most  tastes, 
and  are  esteemed  a  delicacy.  They  are  fit  for  use  when 
some  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  continue  so 
until  the  seeds  begin  to  change  color.  They  are  not  un- 
wholesome, but  cannot  be  very  nourishing,  as  they  con- 
tain a  very  large  proportion  of  water.  Before  frying, 
they  should  be  cut  in  slices  a  quarter  to  a  half  of  an  inch 
thick,  and  piled  on  a  plate  with  alternate  layers  of  salt, 
in  order  to  remove  the  acrid  taste. 

Marketing. — The  eggplant  to  be  marketable  must  be 
of  good  average  size,  weighing  not  less  than  one  pound, 
and  must  have  the  coloring  not  too  light,  and  must  be 
tender.  The  stem  is  cut  to  the  length  of  about  one  inch, 
and  each  eggplant  is  wrapped  in  paper  before  packing. 
Pack  in  bushel  crates  firm  and  solid,  so  that  there  will  be 
no  movement  in  the  vegetable  while  shipping;  use  every 
care  to  prevent  bruising. 

ENDIVE. — (Cichorium  Endivia.) 

Endive  is  a  hardy  annual,  a  native  of  China  and  Japan; 
first  cultivated  in  England  in  1548.  The  root  leaves  are 
numerous,  large,  sinuate,  toothed,  and  smooth.  The  stem 
rises  about  two  feet  high,  producing  generally  blue 
flowers.    The  best  varieties  are: 


340  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Large  Green  Curled. — A  fine,  hardy  variety,  with 
long,  beautifully  curled  leaves.    It  is  the  best  for  salads. 

Broad-Leaved  Batavian  has  thick,  plain,  or  slightly 
wrinkled  foliage.  It  is  principally  used  for  cooking,  and 
making  a  larger  head  is  preferred  for  stews  and  soups, 
but  is  not  much  used  for  salads. 

Culture. — Endives  delight  in  a  light,  rich  soil,  dug 
deeply  to  admit  its  tap-roots,  and  to  serve  as  a  drain  for 
any  superfluous  moisture  in  the  winter  standing  crop. 
The  situation  should  be  open  and  free  from  the  shade  of 
trees. 

If  desired  in  summer,  sow  as  early  in  the  spring  as 
possible.  The  main  crop  is  sown  near  Philadelphia  the 
first  of  July;  here  in  August  or  September  for  fall  and 
winter  use.  Sow  at  this  season,  if  possible,  everything 
just  before  a  shower;  draw  a  furrow  the  depth  of  the  hoe, 
in  the  bottom  of  which  scatter  the  seed  thinly,  and  cover 
slightly  with  earth,  pressing  it  upon  the  seed,  riant  in 
the  evening,  if  dry,  and  before  covering  water  copiously 
with  the  fine  rose  of  a  water-pot  in  the  drill.  Do  not  press 
the  earth  upon  the  seed  until  morning;  shade  during  I  lie 
day,  and  continue  watering  in  the  evening  until  the  plants 
get  rooted.  The  drills  should  be  twelve  or  fifteen  inches 
apart.  Hoe  freely  and  keep  the  ground  free  from  weeds; 
thin  the  plants  when  two  inches  high.  Those  removed 
may  bo  transplanted  to  another  location;  choose  moist 
weather  for  this  purpose;  trim  the  leaves  a  little,  and 
water  moderately  every  evening  until  the  plants  get  es- 
tablished, and  during  very  long  droughts.  Those  left  in 
the  seed-bed  make  the  best  plants.  They  should  be 
thinned  to  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  in  the  drill,  or  planted 
out  that  distance  apart,  the  Batavian  requiring  the  most 
space. 

In  about  three  months  after  sowing,  as  they  grow 
stocky  and  full  in  the  heart,  the  leaves  being  about  eight 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE.  341 

inches  long,  tie  up  the  leaves  of  a  few  every  week  or  so  to 
blanch,  and  render  them  tender  and  remove  their  bitter 
taste.  Perform  this  in  dry  days.  The  curled  sort  will 
sometimes  blanch  pretty  well  if  neatly  earthed  up  with- 
out being  tied,  but  it  is  better  to  tie  it.  The  broad  leaved, 
from  its  loftier  and  looser  growth,  needs  a  bandage.  Fold 
the  leaves  round  the  heart  as  much  as  possible  in  their 
natural  position,  and  tie  them  up  with  a  string  or  shred 
of  bass;  then  cover  them  entirely  with  sand  in  the  form 
of  a  cone,  making  the  surface  smooth  and  firm.  This  must 
be  done  in  dry,  but  not  frosty  weather,  as  the  plants  will 
rot  if  the  leaves  are  wet  or  frozen.  They  may  also  be 
blanched  under  garden  pots  like  sea-kale,  or  by  merely 
tying  them  closely,  winding  the  string  several  times 
round  the  plant  and  closing  the  top,  so  as  to  exclude  the 
rain,  drawing  the  earth  around  the  base  to  support  it. 
This  is  the  best  mode  in  hot  weather;  in  autumn  they  will 
blanch  in  ten  days;  in  winter  they  require  nearly  twice 
that  time.  Succory  to  blanch  is  taken  up  and  planted  in 
boxes  of  mould,  which  are  carried  into  a  cellar  or  dark 
room  and  watered  when  necessary.  The  blanched  leaves 
will  be  supplied  all  winter.  Endive  needs  no  protection 
in  our  Southern  winters.  At  the  North  it  is  taken  up  with 
earth  about  the  roots,  and  wintered  in  frames. 

For  Seed. — Let  some  of  the  best  and  most  vigorous 
plants  remain  till  February,  and  transplant  if  you  wish  to 
use  the  ground,  in  rows  eighteen  inches  apart.  Support 
the  stems  by  stakes,  and  gather  the  seed  vessels  as  they 
ripen.  Dry  them  thoroughly  on  a  cloth,  thresh,  and  pre- 
serve in  paper  bags.    The  seed  will  keep  four  years. 

Use. — Endive  is  cultivated  for  its  stocky  head  of  leaves, 
which,  after  their  bitterness  is  removed  by  blanching,  are 
used  in  autumn  and  winter  for  salads  and  stews.  It 
possesses  several  of  the  virtues  of  the  dandelion;  it  never 


342  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

disagrees  with  the  stomach,  but  suits  every  constitution. 
The  French  use  it  in  a  variety  of  forms — raw,  stewed, 
boiled,  etc. — but  it  is  chiefly  employed  as  a  salad. 

GARLIC. — (Allium  sativum.) 

This  is  a  hardy  perennial  from  Sicily  and  the  south  of 
France;  it  has  been  cultivated  at  least  three  hundred 
years.  There  are  two  sorts — one  with  large  and  the  other 
with  small  bulbs — each  bulb  consisting  of  a  half  dozen  or 
more  small  bulbs  or  cloves. 

Culture. — Garlic  likes  a  dry,  light,  rich  soil,  but  not 
freshly  manured;  the  manure  should  be  put  on  the  pre- 
ceding crop.  Prepare  the  ground  as  directed  for  the  rest 
of  the  onion  tribe,  and  mark  it  off  into  drills  eight  inches 
apart.  Plant  the  cloves  four  inches  distant  in  the  drills, 
and  two  inches  deep,  and  see  that  they  are  put  in  right 
side  up.  Keep  the  ground  free  from  weeds,  and  light  by 
frequent  hoeing.    Plant  from  October  to  March. 

A  fewT  roots  may  be  taken  up  the  latter  part  of  May 
for  use  as  required,  but  do  not  lift  the  crop  until  the 
leaves  are  withered.  Break  down  the  seed  stalk  if  it  rises, 
to  prevent  it  from  running  to  seed,  which  would  lessen 
the  size  of  the  bulbs. 

When  the  leaves  turn  yellow,  take  up  the  bulbs  and 
dry  them  thoroughly  in  the.  shade,  tie  them  together  by 
the  tops,  and  lay  them  up  for  winter  in  a  dry  loft  as  you 
would  onions.  If  the  ground  is  not  needed  for  another 
crop,  they  may  remain  to  be  drawn  as  wanted. 

Use. — This  plant  has  a  well-known,  strong  penetrating 
odor,  which  is  most  powerful  at  midday.  In  medicine  it 
is  an  excellent  diaphoretic  and  expectorant;  a  diuretic 
when  taken  internally,  and  has  a  reputation  as  an  anthel- 
mintic or  worm  destroyer.  Some  nations  use  it  very 
extensively  for  seasoning  soups  and  stews,  and  indeed  it 
enters  into  almost  everv  dish;  but  in  this  countrv  it  is  not 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTUKE.  343 

very  much  liked.  Still,  a  very  slight,  scarcely  perceptible 
flavor,  or,  as  the  French  have  it,  a  soupcon  (suspicion)  of 
garlic  is  not  repugnant,  but   rather   agreeable    to    most 

tastes. 

GROUND  PEA-. — (Arachis  hypogcca.) 

This  plant  is  likewise  known  as  the  Pindar  and  Pea-nut. 
Although  not  exactly  belonging  to  the  kitchen  garden,  a 
few  hills  should  be  allowed  a  place  for  the  sake  of  the 
little  folks.     It  is  a  trailing,  annual,  leguminous  plant, 


Fig.  123— Spanish  Peanut.        Improved  Georgia  Peanut. 

a  native  of  South  America,  from  whence  it  was  trans- 
ported to  Africa  and  our  own  country.  It  is  one  of  the 
few  plants  which  ripen  seed  under  ground.  The  yellow, 
pea-shaped  flower  springs  from  the  part  of  the  stem  near 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  after  being  fertilized,  the 
flower  stem  elongates,  growing  from  four  to  eight  inches, 
turning  downward  until  the  small  tubercle  which  is  to 
be  the  future  seed-pod  reaches  and  penetrates  the  earth. 
The  seed  of  the  ground  pea  abounds  in  a  fine  oil,  which  is 
sometimes  expressed  for  table  purposes.    This  oil  renders 


344  GARDENING    FOB    TIIK    SOUTH. 

it  a  very  valuable  crop  for  fattening  bogs,  being  for  this 
purpose  fully  equal  to,  and  probably  better  than  corn. 
The  vines  are  greedily  eaten  by  most  farm  animals. 

There  are  several  varieties,  viz.:  Virginia  running  and 
bunch,  (Spanish  peanut,  Tennessee  white  and  red,  Georgia 
improved  peanut,  and  North  Carolina.  The  peas  of  the 
Georgia  are  larger  than  those  of  the  Spanish,  and  they 
are  also  superior  in  quality.  The  plants  are  productive 
and  yield  few  imperfect  peas.  The  Virginia  are  most 
popular  with  the  trade. 

Cull  arc. — The  ground  pea  thrives  and  produces  best  on 
a  light,  sandy,  tolerably  fertile  soil,  with  a  good  clay  sub- 
soil. Like  clover,  it  possesses  a  long  tap-root,  which  ex- 
tends deep  into  the  earth,  drawing  thence  the  nutriment 
which  is  beyond  the  reach  of  many  of  our  cultivated  crops. 
The  soil  should  be  deep  and  mellow  and  well  broken  up, 
so  as  to  be  ready  for  planting  soon  after  the  heavy  frosts 
are  over.  The  last  of  March  or  the  first  of  April  is  a  suit- 
able time.  They  succeed  well  as  far  north  as  Virginia, 
beyond  which  they  may  be  started  early  in  hot  beds,  and 
transplanted  to  the  open  ground  when  the  weather  be- 
comes mild. 

For  field  culture,  they  may  be  planted  in  the  pod,  two 
in  the  hill;  but  for  the  garden  should  be  shelled.  It  is 
best  to  drop  about  four  in  a  hill  on  the  level  ground,  the 
rows  being  laid  off  three  and  a  half  feet  wide  and  the 
hills  two  feet  asunder;  cover  them  two  or  three  inches. 

When  they  come  up,  thin  them  to  two  in  a  hill,  and,  if 
there  be  any  vacancy,  transplant.  It  is  better  to  plant 
them  level  than  on  ridges,  as  they  are  less  liable  to  suffer 
from  drought.  As  they  continue  growing  all  the  season, 
it  is  well  to  get  them  started  as  soon  as  the  severe  frosts 
are  over.  The  only  after-culture  they  require  is  to  keep 
the  ground  clean  and  mellow,  and  a  slight  hilling  up 
when  they  are  laid  by.    They  will  produce  from  twenty- 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  345 

five  to  seventy  or  eighty  bushels  per  acre,  according  to 
soil  and  culture,  and  are  as  easily  cultivated  as  corn. 

Marketing. — The  harvesting  is  done  by  means  of  a 
plow,  and  as  fast  as  the  plants  are  turned  over  they  are 
shaken  by  means  of  a  pitchfork  to  free  them  from  dirt 
and  then  the}'  are  piled  in  rows  for  a  few  hours  until 
partially  dry.  Stacks  are  made  in  the  field  by  placing 
the  plants  on  boards  (to  raise  them  from  the  ground  so 
that  they  will  not  decay,)  around  an  upright  pole,  where 
they  remain  for  several  days  until  entirely  dried  out, 
when  the  nuts  are  picked  from  the  vines  by  women  and 
children.  This  method  of  harvesting  makes  the  nuts  cost 
more  than  when  gathered  by  machinery,  but  it  is  claimed 
that  the  condition  of  the  nuts  is  better  when  gathered  by 
hand.  The  crop  is  placed  in  sacks  and  shipped  to  the 
cleaning  and  sorting  factory,  whore  they  arc  cleaned  of 
all  grit  and  imperfect  nuts  by  machinery,  and  they  are 
then  ready  for  the  market.  They  are  sacked  and  sold  by 
measure. 

HORSE-RADISH.— ( Nasturtium  Armoracia.) 

Horse-radish  is  a  Cruciferous  perennial  plant,  grow- 
ing naturally  in  moist  places  in  England,  and  various 
other  parts  of  Europe.  Its  flowers  are  white,  and  appear 
in  panicles  in  May.  It  has  long  been  an  inhabitant  of  the 
garden. 

Culture. — Horse-radish  delights  in  a  deep,  rich  mould, 
moderately  and  regularly  moist;  the  roots  are  never  of 
good  size  if  grown  in  poor  soil,  or  under  the  shade  of  trees. 
It  seldom  produces  seed,  and  hence  is  propagated  by  sets 
provided  by  cutting  the  roots  and  offsets  into  lengths  of 
two  inches.  The  tops  and  crowns  of  the  roots  make  the 
best  sets,  as  they  are  earlier  and  make  a  finer  growth 
than  those  from  the  centre  of  the  root.  Each  set  should 
have  two  eyes.    The  finest  crops  are  made  by  trenching 


346  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

the  ground  two  feet  deep,  and  planting  the  cuttings  with 
a  long,  blunt-pointed  dibble.  It  may  be  done  late  in  the 
fall,  or  if  in  spring,  the  earlier  it  is  planted,  if  the  ground 
is  suitable,  the  better.  The  rows  should  be  eighteen 
inches  apart,  the  plants  twelve  inches  in  the  row,  and 
planted  eight  or  ten  inches  deep.  After  the  beds  are 
planted,  smooth  the  surface  and  keep  clear  of  weeds,  and 
avoid  treading  upon  the  beds,  as  they  should  be  kept  as 
light  as  possible.  If  planted  in  March,  a  crop  of  radishes 
or  lettuce  may  be  taken  off  the  ground  before  the  plants 
make  their  appearance.  They  speedily  root  and  send  up 
long,  straight  shoots,  those  appearing  in  April  that  were 
planted  in  autumn.  The  only  cultivation  is  to  keep  them 
free  from  weeds,  and  remove  the  decayed  leaves  in 
autumn.  Hoe  and  rake  the  bed  over  in  autumn,  and  also 
the  following  spring.  By  the  next  fall,  the  roots  are 
ready  to  take  up  as  wanted.  If  the  plants  throw  up 
suckers,  they  should  be  carefully  removed  as  they  appear. 

If  any  manure  is  applied  to  horse-radish,  it  must  be 
put  at  the  bottom  of  the  trench  before  planting,  or  the 
plant  will  send  out  side  shoots  in  search  of  the  manure, 
which  would  greatly  injure  the  crop. 

To  take  them  up,  a  trench  is  dug  along  the  outside  row 
down  to  the  bottom  of  the  upright  roots,  which  are  cut 
off  nearly  level  with  the  original  planting.  The  earth 
from  the  next  row  is  turned  over  upon  them  to  the  de- 
sired depth,  and  so  on  until  finished.  The  pieces  of  roots 
left  will  send  up  new  shoots,  and  the  same  bed  will  pro- 
duce well  in  this  way  five  or  six  years,  when  the  site  of 
the  plantation  should  be  changed;  when  this  is  to  be 
done  every  piece  of  root  should  be  taken  up,  for  the 
smallest  of  them  will  vegetate  and  prove  troublesome  if 
left.    The  best  roots  come  from  fresh  plantations. 

Use. — Horse-radish  scraped  into  shreds  with  vinegar 
is  a  well-known  and  desirable  accompaniment  to  roast 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AXD    CULTURE.  347 

beef.  It  is  also  used  in  fish  and  other  sauces  and  chicken 
salads,  and  is  thought  to  assist  digestion.  The  shreds 
pickled  in  strong  vinegar  and  closely  stopped  in  glass 
bottles  will  keep  for  years. 

HOP. — (Jl lunulas  Lupulus.) 

The  Hop  is  a  plant  of  the  Hemp  or  Nettle  family,  with 
a  perennial  root,  throwing  out  many  herbaceous  climbing 
stems,  and  is  found  growing  wild  on  the  banks  of  rivers 
in  Europe,  Siberia,  and  our  own  country.  It  was  culti- 
vated in  England,  in  or  before  1525,  when  the  old  dog- 
gerel states: 

"  Hops,  heresy,  pickerel,  and  beer, 
Were  brought  into  England  in  one  year." 

A  few  roots  should  be  in  the  garden,  as  they  are  useful 
in  making  yeast  and  beer. 

('ult ii re. — It  is  propagated  by  dividing  the  roots  in  au- 
tumn and  spring.  It  being  dioecious,  care  should  be 
taken  to  get  sets  from  the  pistillate  plants.  To  produce 
the  crop  in  perfection,  there  should  be  a  male  plant  in 
the  vicinity.  Give  the  plant  a  deep,  rich  soil;  put  two  or 
three  plants,  six  inches  apart,  in  a.  hill  (making  with  the 
plants,  when  set,  a  triangle),  and  the  hills  six  or  eight  feet 
apart.  Keep  the  ground  free  from  weeds,  and  well 
stirred.  Manure  them  every  year.  Give  them  poles 
twelve  or  fourteen  feet  long,  and  two  or  three  poles  to 
each  hill.  Gather  when  of  a  straw  color,  and  the  inside 
of  the  hop  is  covered  with  a  plentiful  yellow  dust,  and  the 
seeds  are  brown;  dry  thoroughly,  and  put  them  up  in 
bags  for  use. 

Use. — The  principal  use  of  the  hop  is  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  yeast,  etc.  The  young  shoots  and  suckers  are 
boiled  and  eaten  as  asparagus.  It  is  very  largely  culti- 
vated in  fields,  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  ale  and 


348 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


strong  beer.  Its  medicinal  qualities  are  tonic  and  sopo- 
rific. In  gardens  it  is  often  grown  as  a  screen,  to  hide 
unsightly  objects,  the  plants  being  set  twelve  inches 
asunder  in  a  row,  and  staked,  or  trained  on  a  trellis. 


KOHL-RABI. — (Brassica  oleracea  var.  caulo-rapa.) 

This  plant,  called  also  Turnip  Cabbage,  from  the  turnip- 
like form  of  its  stem,  is  but  yet  little  cultivated.    The 

edible  part  is  the  en 
larged  short  stem,  which 
is  of  a  globular  form, 
with  a  few  leaves  on  top. 
Its  culture  is  the  same  as 
the  cabbage,  except  that 
in  hoeing  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  throw  dirt 
into  the  heart  of  the 
plant,  or  the  bulb  cannot 
form.  In  hoeing,  keep 
the  soil  flat. 

The  Early  White  Vienna 
and  Early  Purple  Vienna 
are  the  best  for  the  gar- 
den. It  is  cultivated  ex- 
actly like  the  rutabaga 
turnip,  for  which,  when  cooked  young,  it  is  an  excel- 
lent substitute.  When  full  grown,  it  is  used  for  feed- 
ing stock.  It  is  very  hardy,  and  needs  no  winter 
protection  in  the  more  southern  States. 


Fig.  124— New  Smooth  White  Short- 
Leaved  Kohl-Rabi. 


LEEK.— (Allium  Porrum.) 

The  Leek  is  a  hardy  biennial  of  the  onion  tribe,  found 
wild  in  Switzerland,  but  has  been  cultivated  in  gardens 
from  the  earliest  times.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures 
with  the  onion  as  one  of  the  vegetables  of  the  Egyptians; 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  349 

and  at  the  present  day  is  often  associated  with  the  name 
of  St.  David,  the  patron  saint  of  the  Welsh.  This  plant 
endures  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  without  injury. 

Ashes,  bones,  gypsum,  and  common  salt  will  supply  the 
requisite  inorganic  materials  for  this  or  almost  any  other 
garden  crop.  A  compost  of  guano,  gypsum  and  charcoal 
would  be  very  beneficial. 

Varieties. — There  are  two  in  common  use — the  Scotch 
Champion,  which  is  the  larger  and  hardier,  and  the  Lon- 
don Clay,  which  by  many  is  considered  the  better  of  the 
two — both  tall,  with  thick  stems  and  broad  leaves.  Large 
American  flag  is  a  large  form,  hardy  and  excellent 
quality,  and  is  a  favorite.  The  Large  Rouen  Leek,  with 
dark-green  leaves  and  a  short  stem,  sometimes  grown  to 
the  thickness  of  a  man's  arm,  is  now  most  liked  in  France. 
Its  stem  is  said  to  grow  large  enough  for  use  sooner  than 
any  other,  and  it  is  now  much  esteemed. 

Culture. — The  leek  is  raised  solely  from  seed,  which  may 
be  sown  at  any  time  during  autumn,  winter,  and  spring, 
until  the  middle  of  April.  February  is  the  best  month 
for  the  purpose,  if  but  one  crop  is  raised. 

The  soil  for  leeks,  as  for  the  others  of  the  onion  tribe, 
should  be  light  and  rich — the  blackest  and  most  fertile 
soil  of  the  garden — but  the  manure  applied  must  not  be 
rank.  The  same  guano  compost  may  be  applied  as  for 
onions.  They  are  generally  sown  broadcast,  but  it  is  a 
much  neater  method  to  sow  in  drills.  Make  the  drills  in 
the  seed-bed  eight  inches  apart,  and  about  an  inch  deep, 
and  scatter  the  seed  rather  thinly.  Press  fine  earth  upon 
the  seed,  as  directed  for  onions.  Some  gardeners  thin 
them  out,  and  allow  them  to  remain  in  the  seed-bed,  but 
the  leek  is  so  much  improved  by  transplanting  that  this 
plan  cannot  be  recommended.  When  the  plants  are  three 
or  four  inches  high,  they  must  be  weeded  and  thinned  to 
one  or  two  inches  apart,  and  frequently  watered  in  dry 


350  GARDENING    FOK    THE    SOUTH. 

weather.  The  seed-bed  must  be  kept  clean  and  light  by 
weeding,  or  the  use  of  the  hoe  whenever  required,  until 
the  plants  are  six  or  eight  inches  high,  when  they  will  be 
fit  for  transplanting.  They  must  then  be  taken  away  from 
the  seed-bed,  the  ground  being  previously  well  watered, 
if  not  already  soft  and  yielding. 

Having  prepared  beds  four  feet  wide  by  spading  in  a 
quantity  of  well-rotted  manure,  lay  it  off  in  little  trenches 
twelve  inches  apart,  and  as  deep  as  the  hoe  will  conven- 
iently go.  Dibble  holes  three  inches  deep,  and  nine  inches 
apart  in  the  bottom  of  the  trenches,  in  which  set  out  the 
plants.  Press  the  earth  to  the  roots  and  neck  only,  and 
not  to  the  leaves.  The  tops  and  roots  may  be  slightly 
trimmed  and  shortened.  Some  prefer  planting  them,  as 
is  best  for  shallow  soils,  on  the  level  surface  of  the  pre- 
pared bed,  by  inserting  them  in  holes  made  with  the 
dibble  nearly  down  to  the  leaves,  with  the  whole  neck 
beneath  the  surface,  that  it  may  be  well  blanched.  Choose 
a  moist  time  for  transplanting,  and  give  a  little  water 
should  they  droop.  A  portion  may  remain  in  the  seed- 
bed six  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  but  they  do  not  grow  as 
large  as  the  transplanted  ones. 

The  beds  must  be  hoed  occasionally,  to  keep  them  free 
from  weeds  and  loosen  the  soil.  In  dry  weather  they 
should  be  freely  watered.  By  cutting  off  the  leaves  a 
little  about  once  a  month,  the  neck  will  swell  to  a  much 
larger  size;  earth  them  up  gradually,  if  they  stand  on  a 
level  ground,  and,  if  in  the  trenches,  the  earth  should  be 
drawn  by  a  hoe,  little  by  little,  into  the  trenches,  as  the 
plants  increase  in  growth. 

If  a  very  early  crop  is  desired,  they  may  be  planted  in 
September,  and  the  plants  will  be  ready  to  set  out  the 
middle  of  February  ensuing,  and  will  come  into  use  in 
June  or  July.  Leeks  can  be  planted  between  almost  any 
other  crop  by  giving  six  inches  extra  room. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE.  351 

For  Seed. — Some  of  the  finest  roots  of  last  year's  growth 
may  be  transplanted  in  February  eight  inches  distant  in 
a  row.  When  the  seed  stems  arise,  they  must  be  sup- 
ported by  tying  them  to  stakes.  The  heads  should  be  cut 
when  changed  to  a  brownish  color,  with  about  a  foot  of 
the  stalk  attached,  for  the  convenience  of  tying  them 
into  bundles  of  three  or  four  to  dry.  When  dry,  they  may 
be  hung  up  in  a  dry  place,  and  kept  in  the  head  until 
wanted,  or  threshed  out  and  stored  in  paper  bags;  the 
seed  will  keep  two  years. 

Use. — The  whole  plant  is  much  used  in  soups  and  stews, : 
but  the  most  delicate  part  is  the  blanched  stems.    From 
its  mild,  agreeable  taste  it  is  esteemed  by  many  above  the 
onion. 

Marketing. — Peel  off  the  outside  scales,  tie  in  bundles 

of  six  and  eight  and  pack  in  crates. 

O     I 
LENTIL.— ( Lens,  esculent.) 

The  garden  Lentil  is  an  annual  Leguminous  plant  culti- 
vated in  France  for  its  flat  seeds,  of  which  two  are  con<: 
tained  in  each  pod.  Lentils  are  planted  at  the  same;: 
season  with  snap  beans,  iu  warm,  sandy  soil.  If  planted 
in  one  too  rich,  they  grow  vigorously,  but  produce  few 
seeds.  Sow  in  drills  twenty  inches  asunder,  covering- 
lightly,  and  manage  them  like  the  snap  bean.  Harvest - 
wThen  the  stems  begin  to  turn  yellow,  and  the  pods  of  a 
dark  color,  but  do  not  beat  them  out  of  the  pod  until  re- 
quired for  use,  as  in  this  condition  they  remain  longer  fit 
for  use  and  sowing. 

Green  or  dry  they  are  cooked  like  beans,  and  when  dry, 
should  be  boiled  two  hours  and  a  half.  Soak  in  water 
before  boiling.  When  done,  add  butter,  pepper,  and  salt. 
They  are  an  excellent  addition  to  soups,  being  very  nutri- 
tious. Like  beans  and  peas,  but  in  a  greater  degree,  they 
are  apt  to  be  unwholesome  for  those  of  weak  digestion. 


352 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


LETTUCE.— (Lactuca  saliva.) 

Lettuce  is  a  hardy,  annual,  composite-flowered  plant, 
generally  considered  a  native  of  Asia.  The  Cos  lettuce, 
however,  came  from  the  Greek  island  of  Cos,  in  the 
Levant.    It  has  been  cultivated  in  England  since  1502. 

Of  the  two  great  families  of  lettuce,  the  Cos  varieties, 
which  grow  upright  and  of  an  oblong  shape,  and  require 


Fig.  125. 
blanching,  though  more  esteemed  in  England,  do  not  gen- 
erally succeed  so  well  in  this  country,  except  at  the  South, 
where  they  may  be  sown  early  in  October.  The  cabbage 
varieties  are  more  hardy  and  free  growing,  and  better 
adapted  to  our  common  gardens. 

The  following  are  good  cabbage  lettuces: 
Butter  or  Early  White  Cabbage. — Heads    small, 
white,  crisp,  and  closely  cabbaged;  leaves  pale  yellowish 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  353 

green;  excellent  for  hot-bed  culture,  or  open  air;  early 
and  hardy. 

Brown  Dutch  (Yellow  Seeded). — Heads  much  larger; 
equally  tender  and  excellent,  and  closely  headed;  with 
brownish  green  leaves. 

The  next  variety,  if  sown  at  the  same  time  with  the 
above,  will  come  into  use  about  two  weeks  after  them : 

Royal  Cabbage. — Black  seed;  heads  larger,  and  leaves 
of  a  darker  green  than  the  early  cabbage;  equally  firm 
and  crisp. 

After  this  comes  on: 

Curled  India. — Leaf  of  a  light  yellow  green,  and  very 
much  curled;  a  very  distinct  sort;  heads  largo  and  close, 
but  not  so  fine  and  crisp  as  the  other  varieties,  but  will 
continue  to  head  much  later. 

White  Paris  Cos. — Very  large;  leaves  pale  green, 
obovate,  hooded  at  top,  closing  over  and  blanching  a  large 
heart  without  tying;  becoming  white,  tender,  crisp,  and 
excellent;  seeds  white.  Seeds  should  be  saved  only  from 
those  with  leaves  round,  concave,  and  inclined  to  hood  or 
turn  inwards.     The  best  summer  sort. 

Henderson's  New  York. — The  heads  are  solid  and 
large;  dark  green  outside  and  light  green  inside.  This 
lettuce  is  crisp  and  of  fine  flavor. 

Boston  Market. — Grows  compact  and  produces  a  firm 
heart,  with  a  beautiful  color.  The  flavor  is  good.  One  of 
the  best  lettuces  for  forcing.  There  is  a  slight  tinge  of 
red  on  the  margin  of  the  leaves. 

New  Mammoth  Salamander. — An  improved  form  of 
lettuce  with  a  compact  head  and  capable  of  resisting  the 
summer  heat  and  droughts. 

Deacon. — A  good  summer  lettuce  with  large  heads  and 
thick  leaves.     When  well  grown  the  leaves  of  the  heart 
turn  to  a  bright  yellow  color;  the  leaves  are  crisp  and 
tender. 
23 


354 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Hanson. — This  is  a  standard  market  variety,  and  pro- 
duces a  solid  head  with  a  fine  flavor;  crisp  and  tender. 
The  color  green  outside  with  white  inside. 

Grand  Rapids. — For  forcing  under  glass  this  lettuce 
stands  near  the  head  of  the  list.     It  retains  its  tender, 


Fig.  126 — New  Mammoth  Salamander  Lettuce. 

fresh  condition  for  a  long  period.     The  heads  are  more 
open  than  the  preceding. 

Culture. — In  raising  good  lettuce  three  things  are 
necessary — good  seed,  good  soil,  and  frequent  hoeing — 
and  of  these  the  first  is  perhaps  the  most  important. 
There  is  generally  no  difficulty  in  making  lettuce  seed 
vegetate,  but  if  it  is  not  saved  from  good  heads  it  will  not 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AAD    CULTURE.  355 

produce  heads,  even  with  the  best  culture.  Lettuce  likes 
a  good  mellow  soil,  enriched  with  well-rotted  manure. 
Good  heads  will  not  grow  on  poor  ground.  Lettuce  may 
be  sown  in  autumn  for  six  or  eight  weeks  before  the  hard 
frosts  come  on,  and  transplanted  into  frames  for  winter 
cutting,  or,  protected  with  a  little  straw,  it  will  stand 
through  the  winter  in  the  open  air  and  be  planted  out  for 
heading  in  early  spring.  A  second  sowing  should  be  made 
at  the  first  opening  of  spring,  and  then  at  intervals  until 
the  summer's  heat  comes  on. 

If  there  has  been  no  fall  sowing,  a  little  should  be  sown 
the  latter  part  of  winter  under  glass,  for  which  select 
Early  Cabbage.  Give  it  plenty  of  air,  but  keep  it  covered 
nights  and  cold  days,  and  as  the  weather  grows  mild, 
leave  off  the  glass  altogether  a  little  while  before  setting- 
out  in  the  open  air.  Fall-sown  Butter  lettuce  may  also 
be  transplanted  under  glass  at  nine  inches  apart,  and  the 
table  be  kept  supplied  in  this  way  with  fresh  heads  all 
winter.  Plenty  of  air  must  be  given  them,  and  they 
should  be  covered  in  freezing  weather  only.  For  a  fall 
heading,  a  crop  can  be  sown  at  the  same  time  with  turnips 
in  a  shady  situation,  which,  being  transplanted,  will  give 
good  heads.  The  fall  and  summer  sowings  do  much  better 
if  thinned  to  a  suitable  distance,  and  allowed  to  head 
where  they  stand,  as  lettuce  plants  are  impatient  of  trans- 
planting in  hot  weather;  but  they  may  be  safely  moved 
if  shielded  by  sun  shades. 

Lettuce  should  be  sown  in  drills  eight  inches  apart.  An 
ounce  of  seed  will  produce  about  ten  thousand  plants. 
Let  the  seed  be  very  lightly  covered,  and  if  dry  weather, 
press  the  earth  upon  it  by  walking  over  it  on  a  board,  or 
patting  it  with  the  back  of  the  spade.  Beds  about  four 
feet  wide  are  most  convenient.  If  the  lettuce  comes  up 
too  thickly  in  the  drills  it  must  be  thinned,  as  the  plants 


356  GARDENING    FOB    THE    >OUTH. 

begin  to  crowd,  to  two  inches  apart.  Transplant  into 
the  ground  where  they  are  to  remain,  when  the  plants 
show  four  leaves.  The  Early  Cabbage  may  be  planted 
nine  inches  apart  each  way;  but  the  other  varieties  will 
not  do  with  less  than  a  foot.  The  soil  into  which  they  are 
to  be  removed  to  head  must  be  rich,  light  and  mellow. 
Transplant  in  moist  weather  with  a  trowel,  disturbing  the 
roots  as  little  as  possible.  Water  the  plants  until  estab- 
lished. Rabbits  are  very  fond  of  lettuce,  but  can  be  kept 
off  by  dusting  the  young  plants  with  ashes.  After  the 
young  plants  get  established,  give  them  frequent  hoeings, 
and  if  good  seed  wTas  sown,  there  can  be  but  little  danger 
of  not  being  rewarded  with  beautiful  crisp  heads. 

Seed. — Some  of  the  finest  and  most  perfect  heads  of  the 
early-sown  crops  should  be  selected.  Each  variety  must 
be  kept  separate,  and  all  imperfect  heading  plants  near 
them  destroyed.  Tie  them  to  stakes,  and  gather  the 
branches  as  fast  as  they  ripen.  Dry  the  seed  in  the  shade 
and  thresh  and  store  in  paper  bags.  Lettuce  seed  cannot 
be  relied  upon  when  more  than  two  years  old. 

Use. — Lettuce  is  the  most  popular  of  all  salads,  and  it 
is  also  sometimes  used  in  soups.  Boiled,  it  is  quite  equal 
to  spinach.  It  is  fit  to  boil  from  the  time  it  is  large  enough 
until  the  seed  stalk  begins  to  shoot  up.  Its  juice  contains 
a.  narcotic  principle  somewhat  like  opium,  which  is  in 
small  proportion  when  young,  but  increases  with  the  age 
of  the  plant.  This  principle  has  not  the  constipating 
effects  of  opium.  A  tea  prepared  of  lettuce  leaves  is 
sometimes  used  in  cases  of  diarrhea.  For  a  common 
salad,  let  the  leaves  be  carefully  picked  early  in  the  morn- 
ing, washed  and  drained  before  sending  to  the  table,  and 
provide  salt,  oil,  sugar,  and  vinegar,  that  each  person  may 
season  to  his  taste.  The  finer  salads  require  hard-boiled 
eggs,  mustard  and  other  condiments. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND   CULTURE.  357 

Marketing.— The  heads  are  cleaned  arid  all  discolored 
leaves  are  taken  oft*.  Pack  in  crates  with  the  heads  down 
and  well  pressed  together  to  prevent  injury  to  the  vege- 
table. 

MARJORAM. — (Origanum  Unites  and  0.  Marjorana.) 

There  are  four  species,  two  of  which  are  sufficient  for 
the  garden. 

Pot  Marjoram  (O.  (J)titc.s)  is  a  perennial  Labiate  plant 
from  Sicily.  It  is  propagated  generally  by  dividing  the 
roots  early  in  the  spring,  and  may  be  by  seed.  Plants 
should  be  set  in  rows  twelve  inches  apart,  and  ten  inches 
in  the  row,  in  a  light,  dry  soil,  and  a  warm  situation. 

Sweet  Marjoram  (0.  Marjorana)  is  a  tender  biennial 
commonly  grown  as  an  annual;  a  native  of  Portugal,  and 
has  been  cultivated  in  England  since  1573.  It  has  small, 
acute  leaves,  and  flowers  in  small,  close  heads.  Sow  in  a 
slight  hot-bed  early  in  spring,  and  transplant  when  the 
frosts  are  over  into  rows  nine  inches  apart  and  six  inches 
asunder  in  the  row;  or  it  may  be  sown  in  shallow  drills 
in  the  open  air  after  the  ground  becomes  warm.  As  the 
seed  is  small,  cover  lightly  with  fine  earth  and  thin  out 
the  plants  to  the  proper  distance.  The  leaves,  green  or 
dried,  are  used  for  seasoning  soups,  stuffings,  etc. 

MELON,  CANTALOUPE  VARIETY.— (Cucumis  Melo.) 
The  Melon,  or  Muskmelon,  is  a  tender,  trailing  annual, 
of  the  same  family  as  the  cucumber,  squash,  etc.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  be  from  Persia,  but  has  been  cultivated  in  all 
warm  climates  so  long  that  it  is  difficult  to  assign,  with 
certainty,  its  native  country.  It  has  been  cultivated  in 
Southern  Europe  at  least  four  hundred  years.  It  is  the 
richest  and  most  delicious  of  all  herbaceous  fruits.  In 
England  its  culture  is  a  difficult  and  expensive  process, 
but  in  this  country  the  most  luscious  melons  are  raised 
almost  without  trouble. 


358 


GARDENING    FOK    THE    SOUTH. 


Melons  may  be  arranged  in  two  classes,  the  green- 
fleshed  and  the  scarlet-fleshed,  the  colors  of  the  latter 
shading  through  orange  to  yellow.    The  varieties  are  very 

numerous.  The  best  for 
garden  culture  are  the 
green-fleshed,  and  the 
following  are  among 
the  best  varieties: 

Acme  or  Baltimore. 
Form  oblong  with  per- 
fect netting;  excellent 
flavor;  light  green  flesh; 
early  and  a  fine  shipper. 
Atlantic  C  it  y. — 
Pineapple  shaped 
melon;  large  and  showy;  moderately  ribbed;  strongly 
netted;  flesh  green  and  sweet;  larger  than  the  Acme,  and 
a  good  shipper. 

Gold  Jenny,  or  Jenny  Lind. — Small,  sweet  and  pro- 
lific; flat  form  at 
poles  and  medium 
cavity;  texture  coarse 
and  soft;  flavor  ex 
cellent;  early  variety 
and  highly  prized  for 
table  use. 


Fig.  127 — Acme  or  Baltimore. 


jrT 


m 


m 


w 


Fig.  128- 


PlNEAPPLE. 

One  of  the  best 
flavored  melons  of 
large  size  and  oval 
shaped;  prolific  and 
strongly  netted;    the  flesh  is  firm  and  coarse. 

Emerald  Gem.— A  delightfully  flavored  melon;  small 
size,  and  dark  green;  the  flesh  ripens  to  the  skin.  An 
early,  productive  variety. 


McCIeary's  Improved  Jenny  Lind 
Muskmelon. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE. 


359 


Shipper's  Delight. — An  early,  good-shipping  variety ; 
green  flesh,  thick  and  fine  flavored.  The  distinguishing- 
feature  of  this  melon  is  the  button  on  the  blossom  end. 

Culture. — The  melon  likes  a  rich,  sandy  soil,  well  ma- 
nured and  deeply  dug.  If  the  soil  is  clay,  it  should  be 
corrected  by  the  addition  of  charcoal-dust,  sand,  or  leaf- 
mould  from  the  woods.     The  most  luscious  melons  are 


Fig.  129— Emerald  Gem. 


grown  on  new  land,  fresh  from  the  woods.  They  like, 
also,  soil  manured  by  cow-penning.  In  selecting  seed,  get 
the  oldest  to  be  had,  and  take  great  care  to  get  that  which 
is  perfectly  pure,  for  the  seed  of  melons  raised  in  prox- 
imity to  gourds,  cucumbers,  pumpkins,  etc.,  will  produce 
new  varieties,  destitute  of  flavor.  All  plants  of  this  family 
are  exceedingly  liable  to  intermix,  to  their  great  detri- 
ment. They  will  deteriorate,  if  planted  within  one  hun- 
dred feet  of  each  other. 

Plant  in  the  open  ground  when  the  frosts  are  over,  a 
little  later  than  the  general  corn  crop  is  planted.  In  sec- 
tions where  the  seasons  are  too  short  for  it  the  melon  is 
planted  in  pots  in  a  hot-bed,  and  the  maturity  of  the  crop 


360  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

may  be.  hastened  everywhere  in  this  way.  When  the 
ground  is  warm,  the  balls  are  taken  from  the  pots,  and 
set  where  they  are  to  remain,  protecting  them  with  sun- 
shades a  little  at  lirst,  or  with  hand-glasses,  if  cold.  Have 
about  three  plants  to  each  pot.  In  the  open  ground,  plant 
in  hills  six  feet  apart,  and  ten  seeds  to  a  hill,  an  inch 
deep.  Thin  to  three,  and  finally  two,  in  a  hill.  Make  the 
hills  as  for  cucumbers.  Superphosphate  of  lime  has  an 
almost  magical  effect  in  improving  the  size  and  hastening 
the  maturity  of  the  melon.  The  insects  are  the  same  as 
attack  the  cucumber,  and  a  little  guano  sprinkled  around 
the  hill,  not  too  near  the  plants,  and  intermingled  with 
the  surface  soil,  will  by  its  pungent  smell  drive  off  the 
bug  and  flea,  and  also  prove  a  very  valuable  fertilizer 
of  the  plants.  Watering  with  guano  water  for  the  same 
purpose  is  very  beneficial.  Until  the  vines  touch,  keep 
the  ground  about  them  fresh  dug,  mellow,  and  free  from 
weeds.  When  the  vines  begin  to  run,  and  show  the  first 
blossom  they  must  be  stopped  by  pinching  off  the  extreme 
bud,  as  in  the  cucumber.  This  will  render  them  earlier 
and  more  prolific  in  large  fruit.  Their  whole  culture  is 
like  that  of  the  cucumber,  and  they  may  be  forced  in  the 
same  manner.  In  sections  where  the  melon  worm  de- 
stroys the  later  grown  fruits,  get  them  into  bearing  as 
early  as  may  be. 

To  Save  Seed. — Select  of  each  variety  some  of  the 
earliest  and  best  melons;  wash  the  seed  from  the  pulp, 
dry  them  in  the  shade,  and  put  away  in  paper  bags.  They 
will  keep  ten  years.  Old  seed  is  more  prolific  in  fruit 
than  new.  Be  sure  to  plant  the  oldest  seed  to  be  had,  if 
it  appears  well  preserved. 

Use. — The  melon  as  a  palatable  and  luscious  fruit,  very 
cooling  in  hot  weather,  maintains  a  high  rank.  It  is 
usually  eaten  with  salt  alone,  though  many  like  the  addi- 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  361 

tion  of  sugar  and  spices.  That  it  is  wholesome  is  proved 
by  its  constant  use  while  in  season  as  an  article  of  food 
among  the  people  of  Southern  Europe.  The  muskmelon 
contains  but  a  trifle  more  water  than  the  beet,  and  is 
quite  as  nourishing.  It  contains  albumen,  casein,  dextrin 
and  sugar,  which,  combined  with  citric,  malic  and  tartaric 
acid,  give  its  peculiar  rich  flavor.  The  green  fruit  may  be 
cooked  like  the  egg-plant,  and  is  also  made  into  mangoes. 
Marketing. — The  smaller  varieties  are  packed  in  vege- 
table crates  and  the  larger  in  barrel  crates.  It  is  advisible 
to  assort  the  melons  and  ship  each  variety  in  crates  to 
itself. 

MUSHROOM. 

In  writing  the  following  description  of  the  mushrooms 
the  author  has  made  liberal  use  of  the  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  53,  issued  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, prepared  by  William  Falconer;  Circular  No.  13, 
issued  by  the  Division  of  Botany  by  Frederick  V.  Coville, 
and  Bulletins  Nos.  138  and  168  issued  by  the  Cornell 
University  Experiment  Station,  by  Professor  George  F. 
Atkinson. 

The  portion  of  the  mushroom  used  for  food  is  not  the 
plant,  but  the  fruit,  which  is  developed  from  the  white  or 
bluish  white  mold,  called  the  mycelium,  or  spawn,  which 
is  the  plant  proper.  In  its  young  condition  this  mycelium 
is  a  network  of  small  threads  running  through  the  decay- 
ing organic  matter,  and  from  the  joints  of  this  thread- 
like form  the  mushroom  springs  and  pushes  to  the  light. 
Sufficient  food  and  moisture  must  be  given  to  these 
spawns  to  cause  them  to  develop  rapidly,  and  the  mush- 
rooms will  come  forth  in  abundance.  Plate  4  exhibits 
the  mycelium,  or  the  thread-like  spawns  as  they  appear 
when  the  earth  is  washed  away. 

The  mushrooms  are  very  common  in  our  forests  and 
fields,  some  of  which  are  poisonous,  a  number  are  edible, 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    A^D    CULTURE. 


363 


and  the  properties  of  many  others  are  yet  unknown.  Until 


which  are  poisonous  it  is  wise  not  to  attempt  to  collect  the 
mushrooms  from  the  fields,  but  to  rely  only  on  the  spawn 
s  u  p  p  1  i  e  d  by  well- 
known  and  reliable 
seed  merchants.  With 
a  little  practice,  how- 
ever, it  is  possible  to 
recognize  the  m  o  r  e 
common  forms,  like  the 
Agaricus  campestris  and 
the  Amanita  muscaria. 
And  with  proper  care, 
on  the  part  of  an  intel- 
ligent person,  all  dan- 
ger of  poisoning  may 
be  eliminated. 

COMMON  MUSHROOM. 

(Agaricus  campestris,  LJ 

"Figure  130  is  from  a 
photograph  of  a  speci- 
men of  the  common 
mushroom  (or  pratelle) 
which  has  been  pulled 
and  is  lying  on  the 
table.  The  parts  are 
easily  recognized  and 
named.  The  stem  (sometimes  called  the  stipe)  is  cylin- 
drical, or  tapers  a  little  toward  the  lower  end.  Near 
its  upper  end  is  a  sort  of  a  collar,  usually  termed  a  '  ring  ' 
(or,  technically,  an  annulus),  which  encircles  it.  This  ring 
is  very  delicate  in. this  plant,  is  white  like  the  stem,  of  a 


\1 


Fig.  130— Mushrooms.  Agarwus  campes- 
tris, L  (after  Atkinson).  View  of  un- 
der side  showing  stem,  annulus,  gills 
and  margin  of  pileus.  Cornell  Experi- 
ment Station. 


304 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


very  thin,  satiny  texture,  and  more  or  less  ragged  on  the 
edge. 

ki  The  more  or  less  circular  expanded  disk  into  which 
the  stem  fits  is  called  the  'cap'  (technically  the  pilots, 
which  is  the  latin  for  cap).  The  upper  portion,  of  which 
we  can  only  see  the  margin  in  this  figure,  is  convex  (see 
Figure  130).    The  surface  is  usually  white,  though  some- 


Fig.  131— Agaricus  campestris  (after  Atkinson).    View  of  under- 
side of  pileus,  showing  arrangement  of  gills. 

times  brownish,  and  usually  is  covered  by  a  thin  layer 
of  very  delicate  threads,  while  the  flesh  or  inner  portion 
is  more  compact,  and  is  white  also. 

"  On  the  under  side  of  the  cap  are  numerous  thin  plates 
or  'gills'  (lamellae),  which  radiate  from  near  the  stem  to 
the  margin  of  the  cap.  These  are  shown  in  Figure  131  as 
fine  radiating  lines.  They  do  not  reach,  the  stem,  or,  when 
they  do,  they  are  not  attached  to  it. 


VEGETABLES DESCKIPTION    AND    CULTUEE. 


365 


"  The  common  mushroom  (Agaricus  campestris)  grows  in 
lawns,  pastures  and  similar  places.  It  averages  5-8  cm. 
(2-3  inches)  in  height,  the  pileus  being  5-12  cm. in  diameter. 

"Pileus. — The  cap  or  pileus  is  convex  or  more  or  less 
expanded,  the  surface 
being  nearly  smooth,  or 
more  or  less  silky  hairy, 
these  fibrils  sometimes 
being  collected  into  tri- 
angular scales.  The  col- 
or of  the  surface  is 
usually  white,  but 
varies  to  light  brown, 
while  the  flesh  is  white. 

"Gills.— When  the 
plant  is  very  young  the 
gills  are  first  white,  but 
soon  become  pink,  and 
later  purple  brown  or 
dark  brown  from  the 
numerous  purple  col- 
ored spores  on  the  sur- 
face. The  gills  are  free 
from  the  stem,  and 
rounded  on  their  inner 
ends. 

"Veil  and  Annulus. — 
The  veil  is  thin,  white, 
silky  and  very  frail.  As 
the  pileus  expands  the 
veil  is  stretched  and 
finally  torn,  when  it  clings  as  a  thin  collar  or  ring  (an- 
nulus) around  the  stem,  or  fragments  dangle  from  the 
margin  of  the  pileus.  As  the  plant  becomes  "old,  the  an- 
nulus shrivels  up  and  becomes  inconspicuous. 


Fig.  132— Mushroom.  Amanita  phal- 
loides,  Fr.  (after  Atkinson).  Poison- 
ous Mushroom.  White  form,  show- 
ing pileus,  stipe,  annulus  and  volva. 
Cornell  Experiment  Station. 


366  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

"Stem  or  Stipe. — The  stem  is  white,  nearly  cylindrical, 
or  slightly  tapering  at  the  lower  end.  It  varies  from  3-8 
cm.  long  and  1-2  cm.  in  diameter.  The  flesh  is  solid, 
though  less  Arm  at  the  center."  {Atkinson.) 

Amanita  Phalloides,  Fn.  (The  Deadly  Amanita). — This 
mushroom  may  be  mistaken  for  the  Agaricus  campestris  by 
the  careless  collector,  but  there  are  marked  differences 
between  the  two  when  examined.  In  the  first  place,  the 
habitat  of  the  Amanita  is  in  the  woods,  while  the  Agari- 
cus is  to  be  found  in  the  open  fields.  The  former  also 
has  a  cup-like  envelope,  in  which  the  base  of  the  stem 
rests.  This  cup  is  called  the  "  death  cup  "  or  "  poison 
cup  "  or  volva.  The  volva  is  the  distinguishing  character- 
istic of  the  poison  forms,  and  whenever  the  mushrooms 
contain  it  they  should  be  avoided.  The  Amanita  is  some- 
times found  on  the  borders  of  the  woods,  closely  situated 
to  the  edible  forms,  and  this  fact  should  be  always  care- 
fully remembered  when  out  on  a  collecting  tour.  Be  care- 
ful to  dig  up  the  entire  stem,  so  that  the  volva  may  be 
certainly  detected  if  present,  because  it  is  often  true  that 
the  stem  extends  some  distance  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  the  poison  cup  may  be  overlooked  if  the 
mushroom  is  pulled  up  by  the  pileus. 

The  Fly  Amanita  (Amanita  muscaria  (L)  Pers). — In 
this  mushroom  the  bulbous  enlargement  at  the  base  of 
the  stem  is  clearly  indicated,  and  this,  with  the  following 
characteristics,  distinguish  this  poisonous  species  from 
those  which  are  edible,  viz. :  The  thick  scales  on  the  stem, 
the  corky  particles  on  the  glossy  surface  of  the  cap,  and 
the  broad,  dropping  ring  at  the  top  of  the  cap.  The  color 
of  the  tipper  surface  of  the  cap  varies  from  a  brilliant  red 
to  orange-yellow,  buff,  and  even  white.  Sometimes  the 
corky  layer  does  not  break  up  into  particles,  but  extends 
over  the  entire  surface  of  the  cap,  and  might  be  mistaken 
by  the  novice  to  be  another  species.    This  is  one  of  the 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE. 


367 


most  dangerous  mushrooms  growing  wild,  and  too  groat 
care  cannot  be  exercised  by  the  collector  in  watching  out 
for  it  in  securing  those  mushrooms  which  are  intended  to 
be  used  for  the  table. 


1              Hi   l^m 

ft'^^L    ' 

H 

9 

ft^i 

L 

Fig. 


133— Fly    amanita,    Amanita   muscaria    (after    Coville). 
Poisonous.     One-half  natural  size 


The  effects  from  the  poisons  taken  into  the  system  by 
accidentally  eating  these  poisonous  mushrooms  are  so 
violent  and  generally  fatal,  the  following  symptoms  and 
treatment,  recommended  by  Mr.  V.  K.  Chesnut,  are  given. 


368 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


The  poisonous  principle  of  the  death  cup  is  known  as 
phallin,  and  is  of  the  same  character  as  the  violent 
poisons  found  in  rattlesnakes  and  some  other  animals: 

"  The  fundamental  injury  is  not  due,  as  in  the  case  of 
muscarine,  to  a  paralysis  of  the  nerves  controlling  the 
action  of  the  heart,  but  to  a  direct  effect  on  the  blood 
corpuscles.  These  are  quickly  dissolved  by  phallin,  the 
blood  serum  escaping  from  the  blood  vessels  into  the 

alimentary     canal, 
and  the  whole  sys- 


^ 


tem  being  rapidly 
drained  of  its  vital- 
ity. No  bad  taste 
warns  the  victim, 
nor  do  the  prelimi- 
nary symptoms  be- 
gin until  nine  to 
fourteen  hours 
after  the  poisonous 
mushrooms  are 
eaten.  There  is 
then  considerable 
abdominal  pain  and 
there  may  be 
cramps  in  the  legs 
and  other  nervous 
phenomena,  such  as 
convulsions,  and  even  lockjaw  or  other  kinds  of  tetanic 
spasms.  The  pulse  is  weak ;  the  abdominal  pain  is  rapidly 
followed  by  nausea,  vomiting,  and  extreme  diarrhea,  the 
intestinal  discharges  assuming  the  'rice-water'  condition 
characteristic  of  cholera.  The  latter  symptoms  are  per- 
sistently maintained,  generally  without  loss  of  conscious- 
ness, until  death  ensues  in  from  two  to  four  days. 

"  There  is  no  known  antidote  by  which  the  effects  of 


Fig.  134 — Fly  amanita,  Amanita  muscaria 
(after  Coville).  Top  view.  Poisonous. 
Two-fifths  natural  size. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AXD    CULTURE.  369 

phallin  can  be  counteracted.  The  undigested  material,  if 
not  already  vomited,  should,  however,  be  removed  from 
the  stomach  and  intestines  by  methods  similar  to  those 
given  for  cases  of  poisoning  by  Amanita  muscaria. 

''After  that  the  remainder  of  the  poison,  if  the  amount 
of  phallin  already  taken  up  by  the  system  is  not  too  large, 
may  wear  itself  out  on  the  blood  and  the  patient  may  re- 
cover. It  is  suggested  that  this  wearing-out  process  may 
be  assisted  by  transfusing  into  the  veins  blood  freshly 
taken  from  some  warm-blooded  animal.  The  depletion  of 
the  blood  serum  might  be  remedied  by  similar  transfu- 
sions of  salt  and  warm  water. 

"The  symptoms  of  poisoning  from  the  fly  amanita,  as 
deduced  from  a  number  of  cases,  are  varied.  In  some  in- 
stances they  begin  only  after  several  hours,  but  usually 
in  from  one-half  to  one  or  two  hours.  Vomiting  and 
diarrhea  almost  always  occur,  with  a  pronounced  flow  of 
saliva,  suppression  of  the  urine,  and  various  cerebral 
phenomena  beginning  with  giddiness,  loss  of  confidence 
in  one's  ability  to  make  ordinary  movements,  and  de- 
rangement of  vision.  This  is  succeeded  by  stupor,  cold 
sweats,  and  a  very  marked  weakening  of  the  heart's 
action.  In  case  of  rapid  recovery  the  stupor  is  short  and 
usually  marked  with  mild  delirium.  In  fatal  cases  the 
stupor  continues  from  one  to  two  or  three  days,  and  death 
at  last  ensues  from  the  gradual  weaking  and  final  stop- 
page of  the  heart's  action. 

"  The  treatment  for  poisoning  by  Amanita  muscaria  con- 
sists primarily  in  removing  the  unabsorbed  portion  of  the 
amanita  from  the  alimentary  canal  and  in  counteracting 
the  effect  of  muscarine  on  the  heart.  The  action  of  this 
organ  should  be  fortified  at  once  by  the  subcutaneous 
injection  by  a  physician  of  atropine  in  doses  of  from  one 
one-hundredth  to  one-fiftieth  of  a  grain.  The  strongest 
emetics,  such  as  tartarized  antimony  or  apomorphine 
24 


370 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    .SOUTH. 


should  be  used,  though  in  case  of  profound  stupor  even 
these  may  not  produce  the  desired  action.  Freshly  ignited 
charcoal  or  two  grains  of  a  one  per  cent,  alkaline  solution 
of  permanganate  of  potash  may  then  be  administered,  in 
order,  in  the  case  of  the  former  substance,  to  absorb  the 


Fig.   135  —  Coprinus  atramentarius  (after  Atkinson).      Scaly  fori 
fourths  natural  size. 


Three- 


poison,  or  iu  case  of  the  latter,  to  decompose  it.  This 
should  be  followed  by  oils  and  oleaginous  purgatives, 
and  the  intestines  should  be  cleaned  and  washed  out  with 
an  enema  of  warm  water  and  turpentine. 

"  Experiments  on  animals  poisoned  by  the  fly  amanita 
and  with  pure  muscarine  show  very  clearly  that  when  the 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AXD    CULTURE.  371 

heart  has  nearly  ceased  to  beat  it  may  be  stimulated  to 
strong  action  almost  instantly  by  the  use  of  atropine.  Its 
use  as  thus  demonstrated  has  been  the  means  of  saving 
numerous  lives.  We  have  in  this  alkaloid  an  almost  per- 
fect physiological  antidote  for  muscarine,  and  therefore 
in  such  cases  of  poisoning  its  use  should  be  pushed  as 
heroically  as  the  symptoms  of  the  case  will  warrant. 

"The  presence  of  phallin  in  Amanita  muscaria  is  pos- 
sible, and  its  symptoms  should  be  looked  for  in  the  red 
color  of  the  blood  serum  discharged  from  the  intestines.'', 

The  Ink  Cap  (Coprinus  atramentarius,  Fr.j. — This  is  one 
of  the  edible  fungi,  or  mushrooms,  and  is  quite  abundant 
in  new-made  lawns  that  have  been  heavily  manured,  gen- 
erally in  large  clusters,  but  sometimes  found  scattered  as 
single  plants.  The  figure  gives  a  very  correct  represen- 
tation of  this  mushroom.  The  pileus  is  egg-shaped,  some- 
times smooth  and  then  again  covered  with  small  scales, 
or  in  other  cases  the  surface  has  a  granular  cast.  The 
stems  are  short, 

Shaggy  ok  Maned  Ink  Cap  (Coprinus  comatus,  Fr.). — 
Edible,  and  found  growing  on  lawns  and  rich  grass  plats. 
The  stem  is  longer  than  those  of  the  ink-cap  mushroom, 
and  the  pileus  is  very  shaggy,  and  the  pileus  remains 
most  of  its  life  in  a  cylindrical  form  and  does  not  expand 
into  the  umbrella  shape  as  is  the  case  with  most  of  the 
other  mushrooms. 

Culture. — Beds  may  be  readily  constructed  at  any  time 
of  the  year,  except  between  April  and  September,  when 
the  temperature  is  rather  too  high  for  successful  culture, 
unless  in  the  cool  cellar  of  some  outhouse.  But  November 
and  December  are  the  best  months  for  the  purpose.  Mush- 
rooms are  propagated  by^  spawn,  which  may  be  obtained 
fOr  commencing  from  the  seedsmen  of  our  large  cities. 
The  spawn  is  an  imported  article,  and  there  is  but  little, 


372 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Fig.  1 36 —  Coprinus comatus  (after 
Atkinson),  well  meriting  the 
name  "shaggy  mane."  Natu- 
ral size. 


if  any,  grown  in  this  country 
for  sale.  There  are  two  forms — 
the  English  brick  and  the 
French  flakes.  The  bricks  are 
broken  into  small  pieces  and 
the  flakes  are  also- subdivided 
before  planting. 

After  a  little  spawn  is  ob- 
tained, it  may  be  increased  as 
follows:  Take  a  quantity  of 
fresh  manure  from  high-fed 
horses,  mixed  with  short  litter; 
add  one-third  cow's  dung,  and 
a  good  portion  of  loamy  mould. 
Incorporate  them  thoroughly, 
mixing  them  with  the  drain- 
ings  of  a  dung  heap,  and  beat 
them  until  the  whole  becomes 
of  the  consistency  of  a  thick 
mortar.  Spread  the  mixture 
on  the  level  floor  of  an  open 
shed,  and  beat  it  flat  with  a 
spade.  AVhen  it  becomes  dry 
to  the  proper  consistency,  cut 
it  into  bricks  about  eight 
inches  square;  set  them  on 
edge  and  turn  frequently  until 
half  dry,  then  dibble  two  holes 
about  half  through  each  brick, 
and  insert  in  each  hole  a  piece 
of  good  spawn;  close  it  with  a 
moist  composition  similar  to 
that  of  which  the  bricks  were 
made,  and  let  them  remain 
until  nearlv  drv.     Then  some- 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  373 

where  under  cover  place  a  bottom  of  dry  horse-dung  six 
inches  thick,  and  place  the  bricks,  spawn  side  up,  one 
upon  another.  The  pile  may  be  made  three  feet  high; 
cover  it  with  warm  horse-dung  sufficient  to  diffuse  a  gen- 
tle heat  through  the  whole.  The  heat  should  not  be  over 
70°,  and  the  pile  should  be  examined  the  second  day  to 
see  that  it  does  not  overheat.  When  the  spawn  is  diffused 
entirely  through  the  bricks  the  process  is  finished.  The 
bricks  should  then  be  laid  separately  in  a  dry  place,  and 
if  kept  perfectly  dry,  retain  their  vegetative  power  for 
many  years.  One  bushel  of  spawn  will  plant  a  bed  four 
feet  by  twelve. 

Beds  for  mushrooms  may  be  made  anywhere  in  a  dry 
situation  under  cover.  Make  them  four  feet  wide  and 
from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  long,  according  to  the  wants  of  the 
family.  A  small  shed  might  be  erected  for  the  purpose, 
but  the  back  of  a  greenhouse  is  a  very  good  situation,  as 
they  do  not  need  much  light.  Space  must  be  left  for  an 
alley,  and  if  the  shed  be  ten  feet  wide,  it  will  admit  of 
a  bed  on  each  side. 

Mushrooms,  like  other  fungi,  abound  in  nitrogen; 
hence,  this  substance  is  necessary  to  their  nourishment, 
and  unless  substances  rich  in  nitrogen,  like  horse  dung, 
are  supplied,  it  is  useless  to  attempt  their  culture. 
Earthy  materials  are  added  to  prevent  the  escape  of  am- 
monia, which  would  pass  off  in  fermentation,  and  the  sub- 
stances used  are  beaten  and  trodden  to  render  the  mass 
compact,  that  fermentation  may  be  slower  and  more  last- 
ing.   The  process  of  making  the  beds  is  as  follows: 

A  sufficient  quantity  of  the  droppings  of  hard-fed 
horses,  pretty  free  from  litter,  must  be  obtained,  which, 
while  collecting,  must  be  kept  dry,  and  spread  out  thinly 
and  turned  frequently  to  prevent  violent  heating.  When 
the  rank  steam  has  escaped,  the  bed  may  be  built.  The 
site  should  be  dry.    Dig  out  the  earth  six  inches  deep,  the 


374  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

size  of  the  bed,  and  if  good  lay  it  aside  for  use.  Fill  this 
trench  with  good  fresh  dung  for  the  bottom,  and  lay  on 
this  the  prepared  dung,  until  the  whole  is  six  inches  thick 
above  the  surface;  beat  it  down  firmly-  with  the  back  of 
the  fork,  and  build  up  the  sides  with  a  slight  but  regular 
slope.  Let  the  bed  slope  downwards  towards  the  walk, 
lay  over  it  three  inches  of  good  clayey  loam;  place 
another  layer  ten  or  t  wel  ve  inches  thick  of  prepared  dung, 
and  in  the  same  manner  continue  until  the  bed  is  two  and 
a  half  or  three  feet  thick.  Cover  the  bed  with  clean  litter, 
to  prevent  drying  and  the  escape  of  the  gases,  and  let  it 
remain  ten  days,  or  until  the  temperature  becomes  mild 
and  regular;  about  60°,  and  certainly  not  less  than  50  ,  is 
the  proper  degree  of  warmth.  Here  skill  and  practice  are 
most  required,  for  on  the  treatment  at  this  precise  point 
the  success  of  the  bed  depends.  If  the  manure  has  a 
brown  color,  and  is  so  loose  and  mellow  that  when  pressed 
it  will  yield  no  water,  but  has  a  fat,  unctuous  feel,  with- 
out any  smell  of  fresh  dung,  the  bed  is  in  a  right  state. 
If  it  is  dry  and  hard,  or  sloppy  and  liquid,  it  is  not  in  the 
proper  condition.  In  the  first  case  moderate  watering 
may  restore  it,  but  in  the  latter  the  superabundance  of 
water  will  probably  spoil  it,  and  it  is  better  to  commence 
anew.  When  the  bed  is  ready,  break  the  bricks  of  spawn 
into  lumps  the  size  of  a  walnut,  which  plant  regularly  six 
inches  apart  over  the  surface  of  the  bed,  including  its 
sides  and  ends,  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  manure. 
Level  the  surface  by  gently  smoothing  with  tin1  back  of 
the  spade.  Fine  rich  loam,  rather  light  than  otherwise,  is 
then  put  on  two  inches  thick;  and  over  this,  a  covering  of 
straw  from  six  to  twelve  inches,  according  to  the  tempera- 
ture. If  the  bed  gets  too  hot,  take  off  most  of  the  covering. 
When  the  bed  appears  too  dry,  sprinkle  it  gently  with  soft 
tepid  water  in  the  morning.  The  water  should  be  poured 
through  the  rose  of  a  watering-pot  upon  a  thin  layer  of 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  o75 

straw,  laid  011  for  the  purpose,  and  when  the  earth  be- 
comes a  little  moistened,  the  straw  should  be  removed, 
and  the  dry  covering  replaced.  In  warm  weather  it  will 
need  frequent  sprinkling-,  but  in  winter  very  little. 

As  cow-manure,  though  it  contains  less  ammonia,  re- 
tains its  heat  longer  than  that  of  the  horse,  a  mixture 
of  the  two  may  be  safely  employed. 

In  four  or  five  weeks  after  spawning  the  bed  should 
begin  to  produce,  and  if  kept  dry  and  warm  will  last 
several  months.  A  gathering  may  take  place  two  or  three 
times  a  week  according  to  the  productiveness.  If  it  should 
not  come  on  in  two  or  three  months,  a  little  more  warmth 
or  a  sprinkling  of  water  will  generally  bring  it  into 
plentiful  bearing,  unless  the  spawn  has  been  destroyed 
by  overheating  or  too  much  moisture.  In  gathering  the 
mushrooms  detach  them  with  a  gentle  twist  and  fill  the 
cavity  with  mould;  do  not  use  a  knife,  as  the  stumps  left 
in  the  ground  become  the  nurseries  of  maggots,  which  are 
liable  to  infest  the  succeeding  crop.  Gather  before  they 
become  flat,  when  half  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  and 
still  compact  and  firm. 

I t.st. — This  "voluptuous  poison"  has  been  cultivated  and 
held  in  high  esteem  among  epicures  since  the  time  of  the 
Romans.  They  are  employed  in  catsups,  pickles,  and  rich 
gravies,  and  considered  by  those  accustomed  to  them  very 
delicious.  Dried  and  powdered  they  are  preserved  in 
closely  stopped  bottles  for  times  when  they  are  not  to  be 
procured  fresh. 

MUSTARD.— (Brassica  alba,  and  B.  nigra.) 

The  leaves  of  the  White  Mustard  (8.  alba)  are  used  for 
salads,  and  the  seed  of  the  Black  Mustard  (8.  nigra)  fur- 
nishes the  well-known  condiment.  Both  are  hardy  annual 
Cruciferous  plants,  and  succeed  in  any  good  common 
loam,  but  where  sown  in  September  to  stand  the  winter, 


376  GARDENING    FOK    THE    SOUTH. 

as  is  common  in  the  South  for  early  greens,  the  soil  should 
be  rather  dry.  White  mustard  may  be  sown  any  time  of 
the  year  for  a  salad,  in  the  same  manner  as  cress,  which 
see.  It  must  be  used  when  the  seed-leaf  is  just  expanded, 
for  if  it  gets  into  the  rough  leaf  it  is  fit  for  nothing  but 
greens.  For  use,  cut  them  off  with  a  sharp  knife.  They 
should  be  used  soon  after  gathering.  Mustard  for  greens 
or  for  seed  should  be  sown  broadcast  or  in  drills  eighteen 
inches  apart,  to  be  finally  thinned  to  about  a  foot  in  the 
drill.  The  leaves  at  the  South  are  gathered  the  latter  part 
of  winter  or  in  early  spring.  Keep  the  ground  free  from 
weeds.  When  grown  for  seed,  gather  when  the  pods 
change  color,  and  thresh  when  dry. 

Besides  the  White  and  Black  species  there  are  several 
varieties  which  are  used  in  many  portions  of  the  South. 
The  Southern  giant  curled  is  most  popular. 

/  sr. — The  tender  leaves  of  both  species  are  used  for 
salads,  and  should  be  more  cultivated  for  this  purpose. 
They  are  also  much  cultivated  for  greens.  The  seeds 
of  the  white  variety,  ground,  form  the  Durham  or  London 
table  mustard,  but  the  flower  of  the  black  sort  is  that  from 
which  our  American  table  mustard  is,  or  ought  to  be, 
made.  The  seeds  may  be  ground  in  a  common  spice  mill 
or  crushed  by  a  roller  on  a  table.  In  this  country  the  flour 
is  usually  sifted  after  grinding,  but  the  French  do  not 
separate  the  husk,  and  thus  make  a  brownish  flour,  more 
powerful  and  palatable  than  the  other.  Mustard  is  a  very 
agreeable  condiment,  assisting  digestion  and  promoting 
appetite.  The  seed  used  whole  is  an  excellent  seasoning 
to  various  kinds  of  pickles.  It  is  also  much  used  in  medi- 
cine, both  by  the  faculty  and  in  domestic  practice.  It  is 
an  acrid  stimulant,  and  in  large  quantities  acts  as  an 
emetic.  The  proper  dose  for  the  latter  is  from  a  teaspoon- 
ful  to  a  tablespoonful  in  a  glass  of  water.  Mustard  is  a 
local  excitant  applied  to  the  skin  in  a  cataplasm,  made  of 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  377 

che  ground  meal  with  vinegar  or  lukewarm  water.  If 
mixed  with  boiling  water  the  acrid  principle  will  not  be  de- 
veloped. 

NASTURTIUM,  or  INDIAN  CRESS. 

(Tropaolum  ma  jus  and  T.  minus.) 

There  are  two  species — the  Large  Nasturtium  (T. 
majus)  and  the  small  Nasturtium  (7T.  mimes) — both  from 
Peru,  where  they  are  perennials,  but  are  here  treated  as 
annuals.  The  large  species  was  introduced  into  England 
in  1681.  The  stalks  are  long  and  trailing;  the  leaves  have 
their  petioles  fixed  at  the  center.  Flowers  helmet-shaped, 
of  a  rich,  brilliant  orange,  and  continue  from  their  first 
appearance  all  summer;  and  if  not  so  common  would  be 
thought  very  beautiful.  The  small  sort  is  preferable  for 
the  garden,  being  productive  and  needing  no  support. 

Culture. — Nasturtiums  flourish  in  a  moist  soil,  but  do 
best  in  a  good,  fresh  loaiu.  If  the  soil  is  too  rich  the  plants 
are  luxuriant,  but  do  not  bear  so  abundantly,  and  the 
fruit  is  of  inferior  flavor.  Give  them  an  open  situation. 
Sow  in  spring  when  the  ground  gets  warm;  put  the  seeds 
an  inch  deep  and  four  inches  apart,  covering  them  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch.  The  seed  must  be  of  the  preceding 
year's  growth.  They  may  be  sowTn  by  the  side  of  a  fence 
or  trellis.  If  more  than  one  row  is  sown,  they  should  be  at 
least  four  feet  apart.  Thin  the  plants,  when  they  are  well 
up,  to  a  foot  in  the  drill.  Hoe  the  ground  well,  and  keep 
down  the  weeds.  If  sown  in  the  open  ground,  support 
them  as  you  would  peas  with  lattice  or  brush.  Give  the 
plants  a  little  assistance  in  fastening  themselves  to  the 
trellis.  Water  in  dry  weather.  Gather  the  fruit  when 
full  grown,  but  while  still  fresh  and  green. 

For  Feed. — Let  some  of  the  berries  mature,  gather  them 
as  they  ripen,  spread  them  to  dry  and  harden,  and  store 
in  paper  bags. 


378  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Use. — The  flowers  and  young  leaves  are  used  in  salads, 
and  have  a  warm  taste  like  water  cress.  The  flowers  are 
used  in  garnishing  dishes.  The  fruit,  gathered  green  aud 
pickled,  forms  an  excellent  substitute  for  capers. 

OKEA. — ( //  ibiscus  esculentus.) 

This  is  an  annual  Malvaceous  plant,  a  native  of  the 
West  Indies,  and  much  esteemed  and  cultivated  wherever 
its  merits  are  known.  There  are  several  varieties — the 
round,  smooth  green,  and  the  long  fluted  or  ribbed  white, 
which  grow  tall ,  also  the  dwarf.  There  is  no  great  differ- 
ence in  quality,  but  the  dwarf  sort  is  best  for  gardens. 
The  White  Velvet  is  a  prolific  bearer,  and  well  suited  to 
the  South.  It  has  extra  large  smooth  white  pods  in  abun- 
dance. 

Okra  likes  a  good,  dry  soil.  Any  soil  will  produce  it 
that  is  good  enough  for  the  cotton  plant,  which  belongs  to 
the  same  natural  family.  The  pods  are  not  as  pleasant  nor 
as  early  on  over-rich  soil.  It  is  not  planted  until  the  frosts 
are  over,  as  it  is  tender,  though  it  often  comes  up  from 
self-sown  seed.  The  time  of  planting  cotton  or  snap  beans 
is  a  very  good  guide,  though  some  may  be  put  in  as  an 
experiment  two  weeks  earlier.  .Make  the  drills  three  feet 
apart,  sow  the  seed  rather  thinly,  and  thin  out  to  two  feet 
apart  in  the  drill.  Those  thinned  out  may  be  transplanted 
and  will  make  productive  plants.  No  seed  should  be 
allowed  to  ripen  on  those  stalks  from  which  the  pods  are 
gathered  for  eating.  As  fast  as  the  pods  become  hard  or 
unfit  for  use,  cut  them  off,  for  if  left  on,  the  stalk  will 
cease  to  be  productive.  If  not  allowed  to  ripen  seed,  the 
plants  will  continue  bearing  through  the  season.  The 
dwarf  okra  may  stand  about  fifteen  inches  apart  in  the 
drill,  and  it  is  well  when  any  plant  begins  to  fail  in  pro- 
ductiveness to  cut  it  down  to  a  foot  from  the  ground,  and 
it  will  soon  throw  up  bearing  shoots. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  379 

To  Save  Seed. — Leave  some  of  the  earliest  plants  to 
ripen  seed,  if  you  would  have  this  vegetable  in  good  sea- 
son.   Shell  out  the  seed,  and  stow  away  in  paper  bags. 

Use. — The  pods  gathered  in  a  green  state,  and  so  tender 
as  to  snap  easily  in  the  fingers,  are  the  parts  employed  in 
cooking.  If  old,  they  are  worthless.  They  are  very 
wholesome,  considerably  nutritious,  very  mucilaginous, 
and  impart  an  agreeable  richness  to  soups,  sauces,  and 
stews.  They  are  also  simply  boiled  in  salt  and  water,  and 
served  up  with  butter,  pepper,  etc.  Okra  can  be  preserved 
for  winter  use  by  putting  down  the  pods  in  salt  like 
cucumbers,  or  by  cutting  them  into  thiu  slices  and  drying- 
like  peaches.    When  dry,  put  up  in  paper  bags. 

THE  ONION.— (Allium  Cepa.) 

The  genus  Allium  contains  several  of  the  most  useful 
plants  of  our  gardens.  In  it,  besides  the  proper  onions, 
are  included  the  Garlic,  Leek,  Eocambole  Shallots,  and 
Chives,  which  are  treated  of  in  their  several  places. 

Varieties. — There  is  a  great  number  of  varieties  of 
onions,  among  which  are: 

Yellow  Strasburg. — Large  yellow,  oval;  often  a  lit- 
tle flattened,  very  hardy;  keeps  exceedingly  well.  Best 
for  winter  use  at  the  South.    Flavor  strong. 

Yellow  Danvers. — Middle  size,  roundish  oblate;  neck 
slender;  skin  yellowish-brown;  early  and  good;  keeps 
well. 

Silver-Skinned. — Of  smaller  size,  but  finer  flavor,  sil- 
very white,  flat,  and  very  much  used  for  pickling  on  ac- 
count of  its  handsome  appearance  and  mild  flavor. 

Red  and  White  Bermuda. — These  are  foreign  varie- 
ties, and  they  possess  good  qualities.  The  red  Bermuda 
is  a  very  early  onion.  The  white  is  a  good-sized  flat  onion 
of  fine  quality. 


380 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


White  Queen. — A  silver-skinned  onion  and  excellent 
for  pickling;  a  rapid  grower;  very  early  and  fine  qnality. 
Large  Red  Wethersfield. — The  skin  is  red,  while 
the  interior  is  white;  flavor  strong,  and  the  keeping  quali- 
ties    are     excellent;      an     early 
variety  and  a  heavy  yielder. 

Prize  Taker  and  Giant 
Rocca. — The  first  is  a  Spanish 
and  the  latter  an  Italian  variety. 
Both  produce  large  onions.  The 
Prize  Taker  has  a  yellow  and  the 
Giant  Rocca  a  red  skin.  The 
flavor  is  good  in  the  case  of  each, 
The  first  is  a  fine  onion  for  the 


Fig.  137 — Potato  Onion. 


and  the  flesh  is  tender 
South. 

Extra  Early  Red.— A  very  early  onion  growing  to  a 
medium  size;  close  grained  and  solid. 

Southport  White  Globe. — Globular  onion  of  a  mild 
flavor  and   good   keeping   quali- 
ties.   Highly  prized  in  some  sec- 
tions of  the  South. 

Potato  Onion. — This  derives 
its  name  from  forming  a  number 
of  bulbs  on  the  parent  root  be- 
neath the  surface  of  the  soil.  It 
ripens  early,  but  does  not  keep 
until  spring.  A  sub-variety  with 
smaller  bulbs  is  said  to  produce 
bulbs  on  the  stem  like  the  top 
onion.  It  is  very  prolific,  and 
affords  a  supply  before  other  kinds  are  ready.  Plant  the 
offsets  in  rows  a  foot  apart,  and  ten  inches  in  the  row, 
three  inches  deep,  from  October  to  March. 


Fig.  138— Top  Onion. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  381 

Top  ok  Tree  Onion  {Allium  Cepa.  car.  viviparum).—Is 
said  to  have  originated  in  Canada.  It  produces  little 
bulbs  ("  buttons")  at  the  top  of  the  seed  stems;  hence  its 
name  "  Tree  Onion."  This  is  the  easiest  to  manage  of  any 
of  the  onions;  is  of  good,  mild  flavor,  early  and  productive 
with  little  care,  so  that  it  is  a  favorite  in  climates  too  cold 
and  too  warm  for  the  other  varieties.  Plant  the  buttons 
from  October  to  March  in  drills  one  foot  apart  and  six 
inches  in  the  drill.  Plant  the  apex  of  the  button  just 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  small  top  bulbs  are 
fine,  for  pickling. 

Ciboule  or  Welsh  Onion  (Allium  fistulosum). — Of  two 
kinds — white  and  red;  is  quite  distinct  from  the  common 
onion,  and  does  not  bulb.  It  is  sown  in  September  for 
drawing   early   in    spring.     Flavor   strong,    very   hardy. 

Thompson  describes  twenty  sorts  of  onion,  of  which  the 
foregoing  are  the  best.  Of  these  the  first  two  and  the  top 
onion  are  to  be  preferred  for  general  use. 

Cult u it. — The  method  of  cultivating  the  onion  has 
undergone  quite  a  change  since  1867,  when  this  work  was 
passing  through  its  second  edition.  Then  it  was  the  uni- 
versal custom  in  the  South  to  raise  onions  from  seeds 
planted  immediately  in  the  open  garden,  where  the  crop 
was  to  be  matured.  The  sowing  was  done  in  February  in 
beds  richly  manured,  and  the  plants  matured  the  onions 
about  May  or  June.  This  method  is  still  in  practice  in 
some  localities,  but  generally  it  is  now  superseded  by 
what  is  known  as  the  "New  Onion  Culture."  This  method 
consists  in  sowing  the  seeds  in  cold  frames  in  December 
or  in  hot-beds  in  January,  and  as  soon  as  the  young- 
plants  produce  bulbs  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
and  when  the  season  is  far  enough  advanced,  they  are 
transplanted  in  the  field  or  garden  in  rows  two  feet  apart 
and  three  to  four  inches  in  the  rows.    This  method  of  cul- 


382  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

tivation  insures  extra  size  to  the  onion,  earliness  in  the 
crops  and  an  improvement  in  the  flavor. 

The  transplanting  is  rapidly  accomplished  by  the  use 
of  a  dibble,  made  of  a  piece  of  wood  one  inch  square  and 
six  inches  long,  shaved  to  a  flat  point  at  one  end,  and  a 
cross  piece  fastened  to  the  other  for  a  handle.  A  line  is 
stretched  and  the  seedlings  are  planted  by  pressing  the 
dibble  in  the  soil  and  pushing  from  the  person,  inserting 
the  plant  in  a  vertical  position,  removing  the  dibble  and 
firming  the  earth  about  the  plant.  Very  rapid  work  can  be 
accomplished  in  this  manner,  and  a  great  many  plants 
can  be  transplanted  from  the  frames  to  the  garden  in  a 
day.  In  the  use  of  the  hot-beds  it  will  be  necessary  to 
harden  the  plants  before  transplanting  by  opening  the 
frames  during  mild  days  in  February  or  a  short  time 
before  the  plants  are  taken  up,  in  order  to  harden  them 
and  accustom  them  to  the  change.  When  the  plants  are 
to  be  cultivated  with  the  plow  it  will  be  best  to  make  the 
rows  three  feet  apart. 

The  onion  requires  a  rich,  friable  soil  and  a  situation 
enjoying  the  full  influence  of  the  sun,  and  free  from  the 
shade  and  drip  of  trees.  If  the  soil  be  poor  or  exhausted, 
an  abundance  of  manure  should  be  applied  some  time 
before  planting  and  thoroughly  incorporated  with  it;  for 
rank,  unreduced  dung  is  injurious,  engendering  decay. 
If  applied  at  the  time  of  planting,  the  manure  must  be 
thoroughly  decomposed,  and  turned  in  only  to  a  moderate 
depth.  If  the  ground  be  tenacious,  sand,  or  better  still, 
charcoal-dust,  is  advantageous;  ashes  and  soot  are  par- 
ticularly beneficial.  Common  salt,  at  the  rate  of  six  to 
eight  bushels  per  acre,  is  an  excellent  application  to  this 
family  of  plants.  In  digging  the  ground,  small  spadefuls 
should  be  turned  over  at  a  time  that  the  texture  may  be 
well  broken  and  pulverized. 

An  analvsis  of  the  onion  shows  that  it  takes  from  the 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  383 

soil  potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen,  so  that  it  will 
be  necessary  to  apply  a  fertilizer  which  has  these  in- 
gredients in  its  composition.  The  following  formula  will 
be  found  sufficient  for  an  acre  of  good  average  land, 
where  the  rows  are  one  foot  apart;  if  two  feet  apart  one- 
half  the  quantity  will  suffice: 

Phosphoric  acid 600  pounds. 

Muriate  of  potash 200  pounds. 

Cotton-seed   meal 1,000  pounds. 

Nitrate  of  soda 200  uounds. 

The  onion  can  be  grown  in  great  perfection  in  the 
South,  and  it  does  not  require  a  change  of  soil,  being  an 
exception  to  the  general  rule  that  plants  like  a  rotation, 
as  they  have  been  grown  in  Scotland  a  century  on  the 
same  land  without  any  diminution  of  the  crop.  Of  course, 
the  land  must  be  kept  well  fertilized  with  stable  manure, 
or  where  commercial  fertilizers  are  alone  used  it  will  be 
necessary  to  turn  under  a  crop  of  pea-vines  now  and  then 
to  give  the  needed  humus.  A  top  dressing  of  unleached 
ashes  before  the  onions  are  planted  will  be  found  very 
beneficial.  The  ashes  must  be  incorporated  with  the  soil 
thoroughly  before  transplanting.  Nitrate  of  soda  applied 
broadcast  after  the  plants  have  begun  to  grow  well  will 
add  much  to  the  value  ot  the  crop. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  make  the  beds  just  wide  enough  for 
three  rows,  say  thirty  inches  wide,  with  a  narrow  alley 
between,  which  may  be  filled  with  sweet  corn  or  cabbages 
after  the  crop  is  laid  by. 

But  in  common  gardens  beds  four  feet  wide  and  the 
rows  thereon  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  wide  are  most  con- 
venient. The  soil  of  the  beds  must  be  finely  dug,  the  sur- 
face rolled  smooth,  and  all  the  clods  beat  fine  that  may 
have  escaped  the  spade.  The  drills  should  be  drawTn  very 
shallow,  as  the  best  onions  grow  upon  the  surface  of  the 
ground.    For  this  reason,  it  is  well  to  roll  the  bed,  or  beat 


384  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

it  smooth  with  the  back  of  the  spade,  before  making  the 
drills.  In  seeding  in  the  open  garden  do  not  sow  very 
thickly — only  one  or  two  seeds  in  a  place.  A  seed  every 
inch  is  quite  thick  enough,  as  thinning  out,  when  too 
thick,  is  apt  to  injure  the  remainder.  Cover  the  seeds 
about  half  an  inch  with  fine  sifted  soil,  and  press  down 
the  earth  upon  them  by  a  roller,  or  walking  over  them  on 
a  plank. 

When  they  come  up,  thin  them  out  gradually  in  the 
drills  to  six  inches  apart.  Keep  the  bed  clean  and  free 
from  weeds,  and  stir  it  frequently,  but  not  deeply,  with  a 
hoe.  Do  not  hill  the  earth  up  against  the  bulbs;  but  draw 
it  away  from  them  with  the  fingers,  as  they  keep  better 
if  grown  pretty  much  above  the  ground.  There  is  no 
crop  more  easily  raised  or  preserved,  if  the  ground  is  rich 
enough,  and  the  bulbs  made  to  grow  upon  the  surface. 
After  the  young  onions  have  got  a  good  start,  it  is  best 
to  drop  the  hoe  entirely  and  resort  to  hand-weeding.  In 
dry  weather,  a  thorough  drenching  in  weak  liquid  ma- 
nure, or  soapsuds,  is  excellent.  For  pickling,  the  white 
kind  should  be  sown  much  more  thickly,  and  thinned  out 
until  about  one  or  two  inches  apart  in  the  row,  which  will 
cause  them  to  ripen  early,  before  they  have  become  too 
large. 

If  onions  grow  thick-necked,  and  do  not  bulb  properly, 
bend  down  the  stems  about  two  inches  above  the  neck,  to 
the  ground,  without  disturbing  the  roots.  This  is  needful 
only  in  very  wet  seasons. 

When  the  crop  is  ready  for  harvesting,  it  is  known  by 
the  drying  up  and  change  of  color  of  the  stems. 

To  Preserve  Them. — Pull  them  on  a  dry  day,  dry  them 
thoroughly  in  the  shade,  and  stow  them  in  a  loft  where 
they  can  have  plenty  of  air.  W7hen  thoroughly  dry  they 
can  be  strung  in  ropes,  made  by  braiding  the  tops  to- 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  385 

getker.  From  two  to  live  hundred  bushels  per  acre  is 
the  usual  crop. 

For  Seed. — Select  the  largest  aud  finest  bulbs  and  plaut 
out  in  the  fall  about  twelve  iuches  apart,  in  beds  of  com- 
mon  garden  soil,  not  too  rich.  Keep  them  free  from  weeds; 
and  when  they  throw  up  seed  stalks  support  them  by 
poles  laid  horizontally  on  stakes,  six  or  eight  iuches  above 
the  surface  of  the  beds.  Home-grown  seed  from  good 
bulbs  is  as  good  as  the  best  imported.  It  will  keep  three 
years,  but  the  fresh  grown  seeds  are  preferable.  Onion 
buttous  are  grown  in  the  same  manner  upon  the  Top 
Onion. 

Use. — Onions  are  among  the  most  useful  products  of  the 
garden.  They  are  used  especially  as  a  flavoring  ingredient 
and  seasoning  for  soups,  meats,  and  sauces;  for  which 
purpose  they  have  been  employed  from  time  immemorial. 
They  contain  considerable  nutriment,  and  are  tolerably 
wholesome,  especially  if  boiled.  Onions,  like  (///  other 
vegetables,  need  to  be  slightly  salted  while  cooking,  or  their 
sweetness  will  be  mostly  lost.  Raw,  they  are  not  very 
digestible,  and  they  are  the  same  if  fried  or  roasted.  Eat- 
ing a  few  leaves  of  parsley  will  destroy  in  a  measure  the 
unpleasant  smell  they  impart  to  the  breath. 

Marketing. — The  early  crop  should  be  gathered  in 
March,  tied  five  or  more  in  a  bunch,  and  packed  in  crates. 
With  this  early  green  crop  the  tops  are  left  on,  but  with 
the  later  dried  onions  the  tops  are  cut  off  before  packing. 

ORACH.— (A  triplex  Hortensi*. ) 

A  hardy  annual,  of  the  same  natural  family  as  the  beet 
and  Jerusalem  oak  (Chenopodiaceoe),  a  native  of  Tartary, 
and  first  cultivated  by  English  gardeners  in  1548.  The 
stem  rises  three  or  four  feet  high,  with  oblong,  variously 
shaped  leaves,  cut  at  the  edges,  thick,  pale  green, 
and  glaucous,  and  of  slightly  acid  flavor;  flowers  of 
25 


386  GARDEAUS'G    FUR    THE    SOUTH. 

.same  color  as  the  foliage.  There  are  two  varieties — the 
pale  green  and  the  red  or  purple  leaved,  the  latter  of 
which  is  just  now  coming  into  fashion  as  an  ornamental 
plant,  on  account  of  the  tine  color  of  its  foliage. 

Culture- — Orach  flourishes  best  in  a  rich,  moist  soil. 
It  is  raised  from  seed  sown  in  drills,  lifteen  to  eighteen 
inches  apart.  Sow  very  early  in  spring,  or  in  October, 
which  is  a  good  time  in  mild  climates.  Two  or  three 
sowings  may  be  made  in  spring  for  a  succession.  The 
plants  soon  make  their  appearance;  when  an  inch  high 
thin  them  to  four  inches  asunder.  Those  removed  may 
be  replanted,  being  watered  occasionally  until  estab- 
lished. Hoe  them  in  a  dry  day,  keeping  the  ground  loose 
and  free  from  weeds.     Once  established,  it  sows  itself. 

Use. — The  leaves  and  tender  stalks  are  cooked  and 
eaten  like  spinach,  to  which  they  are  preferred  by  many. 
They  must  be  gathered  while  young,  or  they  are  worth- 
less. The  seed  should  be  gathered  before  fully  ripe,  as 
the}7  are  liable  to  be  blown  away  by  wind. 

PARSLEY.' — (  Petroselinum   sat i rum. ) 

Parsley  is  a  hardy,  biennial,  Umbelliferous  plant  from 
Sardinia.  There  are  two  varieties  used  in  garnishing — 
the  common  parsley,  with  plain  leaves,  which  is  the 
hardier  sort,  and  the  Champion  Moss  Curled,  which  is 
much  handsomer  and  longer  in  running  to  seed. 

The  Market  Gardeners'  Parsley  is  a  variety  quite  popu- 
lar, the  leaves  of  which  are  beautifully  curled. 

The  Neapolitan  or  Celery-leaved  is  grown  by  the 
French  for  the  leaf-stalks,  which  they  blanch  and  use  like 
celery. 

The  Hamburg  Parsley  (var.  latifolium)  is  cultivated  for 
its  fleshy  roots,  which  are  eaten  like  parsnips. 

Parsley  is  raised  only  from  seed,  which  may  be  sown 
in  autumn  or  spring,  until  the  weather  and  soil  are  too 


VEGETABLES — DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE. 


387 


dry  and  hot,  when  it  will  come  up  readily.  It  is  best  to 
sow  it  pretty  early,  as  the  seed  remains  long  in  the  soil 
before  vegetating.  The  beds  must  be  made  annually,  if 
the  plants  are  allowed  to  run  to  seed;  but  if  the  seed 
stalks  are  cut  down  as  often  as  they  rise,  the  plants  will 
last  many  years.  Many  sow  parsley  as  an  edging  to  other 
beds  or  compartments.  If  in  beds,  it  is  better  to  sow  in 
drills  ten  inches 
apart.  Any  good 
garden  soil  is  rich 
enough  for  this 
plant.  Pulverize 
the  bed  by  thor- 
ough spading,  and 
rake  it  level  before 
making  the  drills. 
Sow  the  seed  mode- 
rately t  h  i  c  k  in 
drills  half  an  inch 
deep,  and  press  fine 
soil  upon  it.  The 
plants  will  not 
come  up  in  less 
than  three  or  four, 
and  sometimes  six 
weeks.  If  sown 
late  give  it  a  shady  border.  Should  the  bed  get  weedy 
before  the  parsley  appears  pull  the  intruders  out  by  hand. 
As  soon  as  the  rows  can  be  seen,  hoe  between  them,  and 
draw  a  rake  crosswise  to  break  the  crust  which  has  been 
formed,  and  the  plants  will  grow  vigorously.  They  will 
be  fit  for  use  when  two  or  three  inches  high.  When  they 
get  strong  thin  them  out  to  three  inches,  and  finally  to 
nine  inches  apart,  being  careful  to  reject  all  plants  from 


Fig.  139— Market  Gardener's  Parsley. 


388  GARDENING    FOB,    THE    SOUTH. 

the  seed-bed  that  are  not  nicely  curled.  If  they  grow  too 
rank  in  summer,  cut  them  near  the  collar. 

A  bed  six  feet  long  by  four  feet  wide  is  large  enough  for 
almost  any  family.  It  is  best  to  appropriate  to  it  such  a 
bed,  where  it  will  sow  itself  and  yield  a  constant  succes- 
sion of  new  plants.  The  plants  should  have  the  stems  cut 
down,  if  growing  rank,  three  or  four  weeks  before  heavy 
frosts  are  expected,  that  fresh  growth  may  be  thrown  up 
for  winter  and  early  spring  use.  It  is  well  to  protect  the 
plants  with  a  little  coarse  litter  in  cold  climates,  but  this 
is  not  necessary  south  of  Virginia. 

To  Save  Seeds. — Allow  some  of  the  finest  curled  plants 
to  throw  up  seed-stalks;  let  them  stand  eighteen  inches 
apart;  when  the  seed  ripens  it  may  be  stored  in  a  dry 
place.  It  will  keep  good  several  years,  and  it  is  singular 
that  seed  four  years  old  will  come  up  more  quickly  than 
that  gathered  six  months  before  sowing. 

Use. — Farsley  is  a  very  agreeable  and  useful  plant, 
affording  a  beautiful  garnish.  It  is  also  used  for  its 
aromatic  properties  in  seasoning  soups,  stews  and  meats. 
The  green  leaves  eaten  raw  diminish  the  unpleasant  smell 
of  the  breath  after  eating  leeks  and  onions.  It  can  be 
dried  in  summer,  pounded  fine,  and  put  away  in  bottles; 
but  this  is  of  no  use  in  mild  climates,  where  fresh  green 
parsley  can  be  had  all  winter  from  the  garden. 

PARSNIP.— ( Past  inarm  saliva.) 

This  is  a  hardy,  biennial,  Umbelliferous  plant,  of  which 
the  wild  variety  is  found  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  and 
it  is  not  rare  in  this  country  as  a  weed.  It  has  long  been 
cultivated.  In  its  wild  state,  it  is  said  to  have  poisonous 
properties;  but  it  is  rendered  by  cultivation  SAveet,  pala- 
table, and  very  nutritious  for  man  and  beast.  The  garden 
parsnips  have  smooth  and  light-green  leaves,  while  those 
of  the  wild  variety  are  dark-green  and  hairy;  but  the  two 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE. 


389 


do  not  differ  so  much  as  the  wild  and  cultivated  carrot. 
By  ten  years'  culture  Professor  Buckinan,  in  England, 
succeeded  in  producing  the  garden  variety  from  the  wild 
sort.  This  plant  is  of  the  hardiest  nature,  being  improved 
by  remaining  in  the  ground  ex- 
posed to  frost  during  the  winter. 
The  best  variety  for  the  garden  is 
the  Hollow-Crown  or  Sugar  Tars- 
nip.  Its  roots  are  smoother,  more 
handsome,  and  better  flavored 
than  the  other  varieties.  It  is 
distinguished  by  the  cavity  which 
crowns  the  root. 

Parsnips  like  a  rich,  sandy 
loam,  the  more  deeply  dug  the 
better.  They  do  exceedingly  well 
on  rich  bottom  lands,  but  do  not 
succeed  well  in  stiff  clays.  The 
manure  should  be  applied  to  a 
previous  crop. 

Parsnip  seed  can  be  sown  any 
time  in  spring  before  the  hot,  dry 
weather  comes  on,  which  will 
prevent  it  from  vegetating  freely. 
Scatter  the  seed  thinly  in  drills 
fifteen  inches  apart,  and  when 
the  plants  appear,  thin  them  to 
ten  or  twelve  inches  asunder.  Yi%-  14°-Ideal  Hollow-Crown 
The    culture    in    other    respects 

is  the  same  as  that  of  the  beet.  The  roots  in  cold 
climates  are  taken  up  and  stored,  if  required  for  use  in 
frosty  weather,  but  the  flavor  is  improved  by  exposure  to 
the  winter  frosts,  and  they  are  commonly  left  where 
grown  until  spring,  when,  if  taken  up  before  growth  com- 
mences, they  will  keep  some  weeks. 


390  GARDEXIXG    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

For  Seed. — A  few  of  the  best  roots  may  be  taken  up 
and  set  out  two  feet  apart  in  a  border;  but  they  do  better 
to  remain  undisturbed.  The  seeds  cannot  be  depended 
on  for  more  than  one  year. 

Use. — The  parsnip  is  a  very  wholesome  and  nourishing 
root,  though  its  peculiar  sweetish  taste  is  disliked  by 
many  persons.  It  is,  however,  an  agreeable  addition  to 
our  supply  of  winter  vegetables.  Its  fattening  properties 
are  great,  and  it  is  therefore  an  excellent  root  for  feeding- 
all  kinds  of  farm  stock.  Cows  Un\  upon  it  will  yield  milk 
abundantly,  and  butter  of  the  best  quality. 

PEA. — (  Pi  sum  sativum.) 

This  is  a  hardy  Leguminous  annual,  probably  from  the 
Levant,  where  the  gray  field  variety  is  found  wild,  but  it 
has  been  cultivated  from  time  immemorial.  It  is  a  climb- 
ing plant,  producing  its  seeds  in  pods,  which  usually  grow 
in  pairs.  The  pea  is  now  one  of  the  most  desirable  culi- 
nary plants.  Numerous  varieties  have  been  originated, 
differing  in  the  color  of  the  blossoms,  height,  time  of 
ripening,  and  also  in  productiveness.  Among  the  best  are: 
Alpha,  American  Wonder,  Yorkshire  Hero,  Horsford's 
Market  Garden,  Champion  of  England,  Premium  Gem, 
which  are  wrinkled  peas.  The  earliest  of  these  are  Alpha, 
American  Wonder,  Premium  Gem.  Other  varieties  of 
very  early  peas  are  Alaska,  Daniel  O'Rourke,  Eclipse, 
Tom  Thumb.  Some  of  the  best  late  peas  are  Champion  of 
England,  Horsford  Market  Garden,  Pdackeyed  Marrow- 
fat, White  Marrowfat,  Yorkshire  Hero,  Pride  of  the  Mar- 
ket. All  these  varieties  have  been  tested  by  the  experi- 
ment stations,  and  were  found  to  be  well  suited  to  the 
climate  of  the  South.  The  Pdackeyed  Marrowfat  seems 
to  bear  the  summer's  heat  better  than  most  kinds,  and  is 
good  flavor.  The  Alpha  and  Alaska  are  the  earliest 
varieties  of  those  mentioned.     The  following  are  dwarf 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  391 

varieties:  Alaska,  Alpha,  American  Wonder,  Daniel 
O'Rourke,  Premium  Gem,  and  Tom  Thumb. 

The  Sugar  Peas  are  without  the  tough  interior  lining 
to  the  pod  when  young,  and  they  will  snap  in  two  as 
readily  as  the  pod  of  the  kidney  bean.  There  are  two 
sorts — the  Dwarf  Sugar,  about  three  feet  high,  with 
small  crooked  pods;  and  the  Large  Crooked  Sugar,  with 
large,  broad,  flat,  crooked  pods.  The  stems  grow  about 
six  feet  high. 

As  some  families  prefer  white,  others  blue,  some  dwarf, 
and  others  tall  sorts,  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  make  a 
selection  from  the  foregoing  list.  There  are  some  fifty 
sorts  in  the  catalogues,  but  many  of  them  are  synonyms. 

Potash  and  phosphoric  acid  are  large  constituents  of 
the  ash  of  the  pea.  Ashes  aud  bone-dust,  or  super-phos- 
phate of  lime,  especially  the  former,  are  likely  to  be  the 
special  manures  most  needed. 

Cull urc. — A  moderately  rich  and  dry  calcareous  loam 
is  best  suited  for  the  early  pea  ami  the  dwarf  varieties. 
The  late  peas  and  the  lofty  growers  do  better  in  heavier 
soil,  and  a  cool  moist  situation.  The  manure  should  be 
applied  early  the  preceding  autumn,  to  be  well  reduced 
by  the  time  the  crop  of  peas  is  ready  to  feed  upon  it.  In 
poor  ground,  fresh  stable  manure  is  better  than  none. 
If  the  ground,  however,  be  extremely  rich,  there  will  be 
more  vines  than  fruit.  The  soil  must  be  deep,  so  that  the 
roots  may  penetrate  deeply  to  obtain  moisture  in  time  of 
drought,  that  the  vines  may  not  mildew.  If  the  vines 
mildew  or  get  too  dry  after  they  begin  to  blossom,  the 
pods  will  not  fill  well.  On  this  account  it  is  found  to  be 
of  advantage  to  plant  in  a  furrow  some  six  inches  deep, 
as  they  continue  much  longer  in  bearing  than  when 
planted  shallow. 

The  early  crop  may  be  planted  as  soon  as  the  ground 
will  do  to  work  in  the  spring.   And  in  the  Cotton  States, 


392  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

where  the  winters  are  mild,  American  Wonder  and  Pre- 
mium Gem  peas  may  be  planted  from  the  last  of  Novem- 
ber until  March ;  Horsford's  Market  Garden,  etc.,  in 
February;  and  the  later  kinds  until  early  in  April,  and 
for  a  fall  crop  in  August  to  come  into  use  in  October. 

Near  New  York  city  they  are  planted  from  as  early  in 
March  as  the  ground  opens,  until  late  in  May.  The  dis- 
tance of  the  rows  apart  will  depend  upon  the  variety. 
They  should  not  be  nearer  to  each  other  than  the  height 
to  which  the  sort  planted  generally  attains.  Tom  Thumb 
may  be  planted  only  fifteen  inches  apart  from  row  to  row, 
but  as  it  is  a  branching  sort,  the  plants  may  be  five  or  six 
inches  in  the  row.  It  is  usual  to  plant  in  double  rows, 
from  nine  to  twelve  inches  asunder,  leaving  the  distance 
above  directed  between  each  pair  of  rows.  The  sticks 
are  set  midway  between  the  double  rows,  supporting 
the  vines  of  both.  It  is  maintained  by  many  that  from 
its  more  full  exposure  to  the  air  and  sun  a  single  row  will 
produce  as  much  as  two.  The  tall  later  sorts  are  far  more 
fruitful  if  the  rows  are  put  twenty  or  thirty  feet  apart, 
and  the  space  between  occupied  with  other  crops. 

It  is  best  to  plant  the  early  crop  in  rows  running  east 
and  west,  that  the  sun  may  warm  the  ridge  of  soil  drawn 
up  to  the  roots;  but  the  rows  of  the  main  crop  should  run 
north  and  south.  Early  peas  should  be  planted  in  the 
drills,  about  an  inch  apart;  the  medium  growers  an  inch 
and  a  half;  while  for  the  tall  kinds  two  inches  are  not 
too  much.  A  quart  of  seed  of  these  varieties  will  plant 
not  quite  fifty  yards  of  double  rows,  while  a  quart  of  early 
peas  will  plant  nearly  seventy  yards  twice  as  thickly. 
The  soil  with  which  they  are  covered  should  be  chopped 
fine,  if  lumpy,  and  in  planting  pressed  upon  the  seed. 
Better  delay  a  little  than  plant  when  the  ground  is  wet. 
After  the  peas  are  about  two  inches  high,  hoe  them  well, 
drawing  the  earth  a  little  toward  them,  and  loosening  the 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  393 

soil  between  the  drills,  destroying  every  weed,  liepeat 
this  once  or  twice  before  brushing,  which  should  be  done 
when  the  plants  are  six  or  eight  inches  high,  or  as  soon 
as  the  tendrils  appear.  This  may  be  done  by  sharpened 
branches  of  trees  prepared  fan-shaped,  and  of  a  height 
proper  for  the  pea  to  which  they  are  to  be  applied,  or 
stakes  may  be  driven  down  every  six  feet  each  side  of  the 
drills,  and  lines  of  twine  stretched  from  one  to  the  other. 
Pea  brush  is,  however,  the  best,  as  the  vines  lay  hold  of  it 
more  readily.  It  should  be  placed  firmly  in  the  ground 
between  the  drills.  After  brushing,  draw  up  the  earth  on 
each  side  to  help  support  the  vine.  Market  gardeners  do 
not  employ  brush  or  twine,  but  let  them  fall  over  and 
bear  what  they  will.  This  does  tolerably  well  with  the 
early  varieties,  if  the  spaces  between  the  rows  be  filled 
with  straw  or  leaves. 

Peas  are  forced  by  planting  under  glass  m  pots,  10  be 
transplanted,  when  the  season  permits;  but  in  mild  lati- 
tudes this  is  needless,  as  the  pea,  when  young  will  survive 
a  temperature  but  two  degrees  above  zero  if  not  in  a  state 
of  rapid  growth.  If  a  hard  frost  occur  when  the  plants 
are  in  bloom  the  crop  is  lost. 

Seed. — The  plants  of  the  rows  intended  for  seed  should 
not  be  gathered  from  for  any  other  purpose.  When  the 
pods  begin  to  dry,  gather  and  dry  them  thoroughly,  and 
store  the  seed  in  bottles,  pouring  into  each  a  little  spirits 
of  turpentine,  as  directed  for  preserving  beans. 

Some  think  that  peas  are  earlier  if  the  seed  has  been 
obtained  from  a  more  northern  locality  than  the  one  in 
which  they  are  planted.  The  garden  pea  is  very  whole- 
some, and  an  almost  universal  favorite.  To  have  them  in 
perfection,  they  should  be  freshly  gathered,  and  by  no 
means  allowed  to  stand  over  night  before  use.  They  can 
be  shelled  and  dried  in  the  shade,  and  form  a  tolerably 
agreeable  dish  in  winter,  but  they  are  much  inferior  to 


o'J-i  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

those  freshly  picked.     Green  or  dry  they  are  very  nutri 
tious,  abounding  in  flesh-forming  constituents. 

MARKETING. — In  the  far  South  peas  are  gathered  for 
the  market  in  .March,  at  the  time  when  a  good  price  can 
be  obtained  if  the  pods  are  carefully  picked  and  neatly 
packed.  Do  not  pick  until  the  pods  are  well  tilled  and 
reject  all  those  which  are  discolored  or  over-ripe.  Pack 
in  bushel  crates.  Fill  the  crates  above  the  top  and  press 
the  tops  on  firmly,  so  that  the  peas  will  be  securely  packed 
and  the  packages  will  be  full  when  they  reach  their  desti- 
nation 

PEPPER.— (Capsicum.) 

This  genus  (Capsicum)  of  plants  belongs  to  the  Solanum 
family,  and  several  species  are  in  cultivation,  all  of  which 
are  natives  of  tropical  regions.  Some  of  them  have  been 
cultivated  in  England  three  hundred  years,  C.  annum,  or 
Guinea  Pepper,  having  been  introduced  there  in  L548. 
Those  most  in  use  are: 

Bell  Pepper. — This  was  brought  from  India  in  1759 — 
of  low-  growth,  with  large,  red,  bell-shaped  fruit.  Its  thick 
and  pulpy  skin  renders  it  best  for  pickles;  more  mild  than 
most  varieties.     It  is  a  biennial. 

Cayenne,  or  Long  PErrEK. — Is  a  perennial,  with 
small,  round,  bright  red,  tapering  fruit,  extremely  pun- 
gent. Of  this  there  is  a  large  and  small  fruited  sort,  both 
excellent  for  pepper  sauce,  and  to  grind  as  a  condiment. 

Large  Sweet  Spanish  is  a  large,  mild  variety  of  an- 
nual pepper,  much  used  in  pickling. 

Tomato  Pepper  is  of  two  sorts,  red  ami  yellow,  both 
tolerably  mild;  fruit  tomato  shaped. 

Culture. — Capsicum  likes  ;i  rich,  moist  loam,  rather 
light  than  otherwise.  Guano  and  fowl  manure  are  excel- 
lent fertilizers  for  peppers. 

For  early  plants,  sow  the  seed  in  drills,  one  inch  deep 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  395 

and  six  inches  apart,  under  glass,  in  February,  and  trans- 
plant after  the  frosts  are  entirely  over,  when  three  or 
four  inches  high,  into  good  soil,  in  rows  eighteen  inches 
apart  each  way.  Sow  also  in  the  open  ground  as  soou  as 
the  settled  warm  weather  comes  on,  say  the  last  of  March 
or  first  of  April,  and  thin  them  out  to  the  proper  distance. 
An  ounce  of  seed  will  give  two  or  three  thousand  plants. 
They  should  be  transplanted  in  moist  weather  only,  and 
must  be  watered  until  well  established.  Shading  a  few 
days  at  midday,  after  transplanting,  is  very  beneficial. 
Cultivate  and  earth  up  their  stems  a  little. 

Seed. — A  plant  bearing  the  earliest  and  finest  fruit 
should  be  selected.  The  varieties  should  be  grown  as  far 
apart  as  possible.  When  ripe,  the  pods  are  hung  up  to 
dry,  and  kept  until  the  seed  is  wanted  for  sowing. 

Use. — These  plants  are  very  much  used  in  all  hot 
climates,  where  they  enter  as  a  seasoning  into  almost 
every  dish.  The  large  kinds  for  pickling  should  be  gath- 
ered when  full  grown,  and  just  before  turning  red.  They 
are  also  dried  when  ripe,  and  used  for  seasoning.  Cayenne 
and  the  other  small  kinds  are  ground  lor  table  use,  or 
made  into  pepper  sauce  by  the  addition  of  strong  vinegar. 
Peppers  are  often  rubbed  upon  meat  to  drive  away  in- 
sects. The  daily  use  of  this  plant  in  hot  climates  is 
decidedly  a  preventive  of  bowel  complaints,  for  which 
reason  it  is  so  universally  cultivated  in  tropical  regions. 

Marketing.— Cut  the  peppers  with  short  stems,  so  they 
will  not  dry  out  too  soon  and  ship  in  vegetable  crates. 

POTATO   (IRISH.)— (Sola ii inn  tuberosum.) 

The  Irish  potato  is  a  perennial  plant,  with  a  tuberous, 
subterranean  stem,  of  the  same  genus  with  the  eggplant, 
and  nearly  allied  to  the  tomato.  It  is  reported  to  have 
been  brought  into  England  from  Virginia  by  Raleigh  in 
15S6,  but  as  he  never  visited  Virginia,  he  probably  ob- 


396  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

tained  it  from  some  other  portion  of  this  continent. 
Though  called  the  Irish  potato,  it  is  really  a  native  of 
the  western  coast  of  South  America,  where  it  is  still  found 
wild,  both  "on  dry,  sterile  mountains,  and  in  damp  forests 
near  the  sea,"  whence  roots  have  recently  been  obtained 
differing  very  little  from  the  cultivated  varieties.  Not- 
withstanding its  excellence  and  complete  adaptation  to 
the  English  climate1,  it  appears  to  have  come  slowly  into 
use.  Raleigh  planted  it  on  his  Irish  estate  near  Cork,  but 
it  is  only  within  about  a  hundred  years  that  its  culture 
has  been  general,  even  in  Ireland.  In  1780  very  few  indi- 
viduals in  America  raised  as  large  a  crop  as  five  bushels. 
Of  the  numerous  varieties  now  used  the  best,  perhaps, 
for  garden  culture  in  the  South  are  the  following: 

Early  Varieties. — Beauty  of  Hebron,  Pride  of  the 
South,  Triumph,  and  Early  Essex. 

Medium  Varieties. — Early  Rose,  Early  Puritan,  and 
Late  Beauty  of  Hebron. 

Late  Varieties. — Burbank,  Gannon  No.  1,  Peerless, 
Pearl  of  Savoy,  Rural  New  Yorker  No.  2,  and  Rochester. 

At  the  South  a  potato  is  required  that  will  continue 
growing  through  the  long  summer.  The  common  sorts 
ripen  early,  and  commence  new  growth,  so  that  it  is  very 
difficult  to  keep  them  in  their  dry,  mealy  state.  Starting 
the  buds  has  the  same  effect  upon  these  tubers  as  upon 
the  grains  of  wheat  which  lose  their  starch  by  conversion 
into  sugar  and  dextrine,  making  both  the  flour  and  tuber, 
when  cooked,  far  less  palatable  and  nourishing. 

Potash  and  phosphate  of  magnesia  are  indicated  by 
analysis  to  be  the  most  important  inorganic  elements  of 
the  plant.  Wood  ashes  will  furnish  most  of  the  constit- 
uents required  from  the  soil. 

Culture. — The  Irish  potato  likes  a  cool,  moist  climate 
and  soil  like  those  of  Ireland.  The  soil  should  be  well 
enriched  with  vegetable  and  not  with  animal  manure. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  397 

The  best  potatoes  in  this  country  are  grown  in  the  cool 
and  hilly  sections  of  the  North,  and  the  best  there  are 
grown  by  simply  turning  over  a  meadow  sward;  upon  this 
the  rows  are  laid  off  shallow,  and  the  clover  sods  are  often 
so  tough  with  matted  roots  when  planting  (having  been 
newly  turned  over),  that  earth  is  with  difficulty  obtained 
to  cover  the  potatoes.  Soon  decomposition  commenceSj 
a  gentle  heat  is  given  out,  and  by  the  time  the  potatoes 
are  ready  for  the  first  working  they  can  be  plowed  with 
ease.  At  the  second  working,  when  the  plants  are  laid 
by,  the  soil  is  mellow  as  an  ash  heap,  the  young  plant  the 
meanwhile  being  supplied  with  moisture  and  the  very 
food  required  to  perfect  its  tubers  and  render  them  fari- 
naceous and  nutritive.  Iu  our  gardens  we  cannot  obtain 
such  a  soil,  but  we  can  very  much  improve  the  yield,  and 
especially  the  quality  of  our  Irish  potatoes  by  imitating 
it  as  nearly  as  possible.  We  can  dig  into  the  soil  vegetable 
matter  to  decompose,  such  as  leaves,  garden  refuse  of  all 
kinds,  and  pine  straw.  Even  tan  bark  is  not  a  bad  appli- 
cation to  the  potato  crop,  but  if  used  must  be  accompanied 
with  plenty  of  ashes  or  lime  to  correct  its  acidity.  One 
reason  for  the  application  of  vegetable  manure  to  this 
plant  is  the  superior  quality  of  the  tubers  produced. 
Liebig  first  remarked  that  ammoniacal  manures  injure 
the  quality  of  the  potato,  though  they  increase  the  size 
and  quantity.  If  manured  with  strong  animal  manure 
the  tubers  are  moist  and  waxy,  while  if  grown  upon  a  soil 
manured  with  ashes,  lime,  and  an  abundant  supply  of  car- 
bonaceous manures,  such  as  decaying  vegetable  matter, 
the  produce  is  far  more  starchy  and  nutritive.  Potatoes 
enriched  with  strong  dung  are  far  more  liable  to  rot  than 
if  manured  with  leaves,  ashes,  and  lime.  Cotton-seed 
meal  is  an  excellent  fertilizer  for  the  potato.  It  produces 
smooth  potatoes.  The  application  is  at  the  rate  of  800 
to  1,000  pounds  per  acre  in  the  furrows. 


398  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

The  rows  should  be  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  feet 
asunder,  and  the  sets  from  six  to  twelve  inches  in  the 
row,  the  greater  distances  for  the  tall-growing  sorts. 
Experiments  in  England  have  proved  that  there  the  best 
crops  are  secured  when  the  sets  are  planted  six  inches 
dec]),  or  in  light  sandy  soil  not  less  than  seven  inches. 
The  sets  should  be  cut  a  week  before  planting,  and 
allowed  to  dry.  A  medium-sized  tuber  will  make  five  or 
six  sets.  After  the  ground  has  been  well  prepared  by 
plowing  or  spading,  dig  a  trench  eight  inches  deep,  the 
width  of  the  spade,  and  in  the  bottom  of  this  form  a  slight 
furrow  with  a  hoe,  that  the  sets  may  be  in  a  line.  In  this 
furrow  the  sets  are  placed.  Cover  with  a  good  coat  of 
manure  of  the  kinds  before  directed,  to  which  manipu- 
lated guano,  or  super-phosphate  of  lime  and  gypsum,  may 
be  added  with  advantage.  The  earth  is  hauled  over  them, 
leaving  the  surface  some  two  or  three  inches  below  the 
general  level,  that  the  plants  may  receive  and  retain 
near  them  all  the  rain  that  falls.  After  the  plains  come 
up  hoe  them  well,  but  do  not  disturb  the  ground  if  there 
is  any  apprehension  of  even  a  slight  frost.  "When  all 
danger  of  frost  is  over,  they  should,  if  possible,  receive 
a  good  mulching  of  leaves  directly  after  a  good,  heavy 
rain,  and  some  trash  may  be  laid  over  to  keep  the  leaves 
in  place.  The  leaves  must  not  be  put  on  too  early,  as 
when  applied  before  the  frosts  are  entirely  over  the 
evaporation  from  a  bed  of  damp  leaves  so  lowers  the  tem- 
perature at  their  surface  that  a  frost  scarcely  perceptible 
elsewhere  may  prove  fatal  to  tender  plants  thus  mulched. 

If  the  leaves  are  not  to  be  obtained,  keep  the  soil  free 
from  weeds  by  flat  culture,  until  the  tops  cover  the 
ground.  The  early  crop  may  alternate  with  Lima  beans, 
making  the  rows  five  feet  apart  in  this  case,  and  they  will 
be  ready  for  digging  when  the  beans,  which  are  planted 
in  hills  between  the  potato  rows,  are  fit  for  use.    This  crop 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AM)    CULTUEE. 


399 


should  be  planted  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible.  At 
the  South  in  January  or  February,  and  at  the  North  in 
March  or  April.  The  main  crop  may  be  put  iu  three  or 
four  weeks  later,  but  the  early  planted  crops  (if  they 
escape  the  spring  frosts)  are  best.  In  colder  climates  the 
sets  are  often  kept  in  a  warm  room  covered  with  damp 
moss  until  they  have  grown  a  half  inch,  and  then  if 
planted  out  without  being  dried,  in  a  warm  situation,  are 
considerably  earlier.  A  teaspoonful  of  gypsum  dusted 
over  the  plants  when  they  appear  above  ground  is  very 
beneficial.  Never  work  the  crop  after  the  blossom  buds 
appear. 

When  the  tops  begin  to  die,  dig  the  crop,  and  store  in  a 
cool,  dry  place.  Sprinkle  them  with  lime  when  dug,  and 
they  are  less  in  danger  of  rot.  This  disease  often  attacks 
them  while  growing,  beginning  at  the  haulm,  and  de- 
scending to  the  tubers,  which  soon  become  a  mass  of  rot- 
tenness. If  potatoes  are  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ground 
until  they  begin  to  grow,  they  become  waxy  and  worth- 
less, and  those  that  are  stored  will  not  remain  eatable, 
unless  the  sprouts  are  rubbed  off  as  they  appear. 

Second  Crop  of  Potatoes. — It  has  been  the  practice  in  the 
South  for  many  years,  particularly  in  some  sections,  to 
grow  seed  potatoes  from  the  first  crop,  but  the  custom  has 
been  to  look  to  the  Northern-grown  potato  for  the  supply. 
It  needs  no  demonstration  to  convince  an  intelligent 
gardener  that  the  potatoes  grown  in  the  South  are  pre- 
ferable to  those  shipped  from  a  colder  climate  for  seed 
purposes,  and  the  method  of  securing  this  end  by  what 
is  known  as  the  second  crop  is  receiving  a  great  deal  of 
attention  among  gardeners.  To  succeed  in  this  cultivation 
the  following  plan  must  be  adopted.  The  potatoes  of  the 
early  crop  must  be  allowed  to  remain  iu  the  soil  until 
fully  ripe;  this  can  be  determined  by  the  dying  of  the 
tops.     They  are  then  dug  and  placed  in  the  shade,  ex- 


400  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

posed  to  the  air  until  greened,  which  will  generally  take 
two  or  three  days.  The  potatoes  are  then  bedded  in  single 
layers  and  covered  with  straw  or  two  inches  of  a  sandy 
soil  without  manure.  If  with  straw  the  bed  must  be 
dampened  and  kept  so  until  the  sprouts  begin  to  appear. 
They  must  remain  in  this  condition  until  August  1st  to 
20th,  when  those  which  are  sprouted  are  planted  in  the 
usual  way,  excepting  that  shallow  covering  is  obtained 
and  flat  cultivation  instead  of  high  bedding,  as  is  given 
to  the  early  crop.  This  flat  cultivation  is  to  obviate  the 
effects  of  the  hot  sun  during  the  month  of  August.  In 
well-drained  soil  the  potatoes  may  be  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  ground  during  the  winter  and  dug  as  required,  but 
the  earth  must  be  ridged  up  after  the  tops  are  dead,  and 
the  surface  covered  with  piue  straw.  In  August  when  the 
planting  occurs  the  potatoes  are  placed  in  deep  furrows 
and  a  thin  layer  of  soil  is  put  over  them,  and  as  the  plants 
grow  the  earth  is  drawn  to  them  until  the  level  cultiva- 
tion is  secured.  When  this  second  crop  is  intended  for 
table  use  it  will  be  necessary  to  plant  in  July,  so  that  the 
potato  may  mature  by  the  time  of  first  frost.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  cut  the  potato,  as  is  done  with  the  seed  of 
the  early  crop,  but  the  entire  potato  is  planted. 

Use. — The  tubers  of  the  Irish  potato,  consisting  chiefly 
of  starch,  and  having  no  peculiarity  of  taste,  approach 
nearer  in  their  nature  to  the  flour  of  grain  than  any  other 
root.  Hence  the  potato  is  almost  universally  liked,  and 
can  be  continually  used  by  the  same  individual  without 
becoming  unpalatable.  It  is  a  good  supporter  of  respira- 
tion, and  adapted  for  the  formation  of  fat,  but  is  deficient 
in  nitrogenous  or  muscle-forming  elements.  Sustained 
labor  cannot  be  performed  on  this  diet  without  the  addi- 
tion of  other  food  better  adapted  to  the  formation  of  flesh. 
Potatoes  are  boiled,  baked,  roasted,  or  fried.  When  long 
kept,  the  best  ones  are  selected,  boiled    and    mashed 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  401 

before  going  to  the  table.     Starch  can  be  manufactured 
from  potatoes,  as  may  ardent  spirits. 

Marketing. — The  potato  with  an  easily  bruised  skin  is 
immature  and  unfit  for  shipping.  Handle  the  crop  care- 
fully, so  that  no  injury  will  occur  to  the  surface,  and 
harvest  only  in  cloudy  weather,  or  protect  the  potatoes  as 
much  as  possible  from  the  sun  after  digging.  Pack  in 
barrels,  and  only  while  the  potato  is  in  a  cool  condition. 

POTATO  (SWEET).— (Ipomcea  Batatas.) 

This  valuable  plant,  first  cultivated  in  England  in  1597 
by  Gerard,  is  the  potato  mentioned  by  Shakespeare  and 
his  cotemporaries,  the  Irish  potato  being  then  scarcely 
known.  "  Let  the  sky  rain  potatoes,"  says  Falstaff, 
alluding  to  this  vegetable,  which  was  at  that  time  im- 
ported into  England  from  Spain  and  the  Canary  Islands, 
and  considered  a  great  delicacy.  The  sweet  potato  is  a 
tender  perennial  plant,  of  the  convolvulaceous  family,  a 
native  of  China  and  both  Indies.  It  has  small  leaves,  with 
three  to  five  lobes,  according  to  the  variety,  with  herba- 
ceous vines  which  run  along  the  ground,  taking  root  at 
intervals.  Its  roots  are  long,  spindle-shaped  or  oval,  often 
very  large,  and  abounding  in  starch  and  sugar.  Its  nutri- 
tious properties  and  agreeable  flavor  have  brought  it  into 
general  use  in  all  parts  of  the  globe,  where  the  climate  is 
warm  enough  to  admit  of  its  successful  cultivation.  The 
following  are  the  most  common  varieties,  and  perhaps  as 
good  as  any: 

Barbadoes  Bunch  yam,  Georgia  yam,  Hayman,  Pump- 
kin yam,  Red  Brazilian,  Spanish  yam,  Sugar  yam,  Ten- 
nessee yam,  Yellow  yam,  Bush  or  Yineless.  These  varie- 
ties are  quite  sweet  and  not  ?o  dry  and  starchy  as  the 
following,  which  are  more  popular  in  Northern  markets: 
Early  Golden,  Red  Nansemond,  Jersey,  Southern  Queen, 
Sugar  (Creole). 
26 


402 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


1iv4&fc 


m 


Fig.  141— Vineless  S^veet  Potato. 


The  sugar  po- 
tatoes are  gene- 
rally poor  yield- 
ers,  b  u  t  a  r  e 
excellent  table 
varieties.  T  h  e 
Tennessee  y  a  m 
is  a  productive 
variety,  with  a 
sweet,  rich,  deli- 
cate flavor.  It  is 
next  in  quality 
to  the  Georgia 
yam,  but  is  more 
productive.  It  is 
a  late  potato. 

In  the  above 
list  the  early  po- 
tatoes are  Yel- 
low yam,  Vine- 
less  and  Jersey. 
The  others  are 
late  varieties. 

Culture. 
Sweet  pota- 
toes like  a  rich, 
sandy  loam,  per- 
f  e  c  1 1  y  friable, 
a  n  d,  as  indi- 
cated by  analy- 
sis, abounding 
in  potash.  The 
soil  should  be 
well  enriched.  A 
dressing    of 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  40 3 

wood  ashes  would  be  very  beneficial  to  this  crop.  Next 
to  potash  it  demands  a  supply  of  the  phosphates.  They 
do  well  ou  fresh  lauds,  if  well  broken  up  and  friable.  At 
the  .South,  the  Spanish  potatoes  are  generally  planted 
where  they  are  to  remain,  like  the  Irish  potato,  whole  or 
cut  up  into  sets.  But  both  these  may,  and  the  yams  must, 
be  propagated  by  slips,  as  they  grow  larger  and  yield 
more  abundantly  by  this  method. 

To  raise  slips,  select  a  suuuy  spot  sheltered  by  fences 
or  buildings,  and  lay  it  off  in  beds  four  feet  wide,  with 
alleys  of  the  same  width  between  them;  slope  the  beds  a 
little  towards  the  sun,  dig  them  well,  and  if  not  already 
rich,  add  plenty  of  well-decomposed  manure.  Do  this  in 
Georgia  in  February,  or  early  in  .March.  At  the  North  a 
gentle  hot-bed  will  be  required,  and  it  will  be  found  very 
useful  in  every  locality,  in  order  that  the  slips  may  be 
ready  as  soon  as  all  danger  of  frost  is  over. 

Choose  smooth  and  healthy-looking  potatoes  and  lay 
them  regularly  over  the  bed  an  inch  or  two  apart,  and 
cover  them  about  three  or  four  inches  with  fine  soil;  rake 
the  bed  smooth,  and  it  is  done.  In  large  operations,  ten 
bushels  of  potatoes  should  be  bedded  for  every  acre  of 
ground. 

While  the  slips  are  sprouting  prepare  the  ground  to 
receive  them.  It  should  be  rich,  or  made  so  with  well- 
rotted  manure,  and  thoroughly  and  deeply  broken  up 
with  the  plow  or  spade.  Phosphoric  acid  and  muriate  of 
potash  at  the  rate  of  400  pounds  per  acre  may  be  applied 
in  the  furrows.  The  formula  recommended  is  600  pounds 
of  phosphoric  acid  and  200  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash. 
Lay  off  the  soil  just  before  the  slips  are  ready  in  low, 
parallel  ridges  or  beds,  the  crowns  of  which  are  three  and 
a  half  feet  asunder,  and  about  six  inches  high,  on  which 
plant  out  the  slips  with  a  dibble  eighteen  inches  apart, 
one  plant  in  a  place.     Choose  for  this  operation  such  a 


404  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

day  as  you  would  for  cabbage  plants,  or  do  it  in  the 
evening.  The  sweet  potato  is  readily  transplanted,  and  if 
holes  are  dug  in  the  mellow  bed,  deep  enough  to  admit 
the  plant,  and  the  slips,  set  upright  therein,  have  the 
earth  washed  in  about  their  roots  by  pouring  water  upon 
them  from  the  open  spout  of  a  water-pot,  finishing  the 
operation  by  covering  over  with  a  coat  of  dry,  mellow 
earth,  brought  up  and  pressed  pretty  closely  about  the 
slips  to  keep  the  moistened  earth  from  baking,  very  few 
will  die,  even  if  they  are  set  out  at  mid-day;  but  as  the 
plants  would  be  checked,  a  cloudy  day,  or  just  at  night, 
should  be  selected  for  the  operation. 

This  is  an  excellent  mode  of  transplanting  all  plants, 
and  is  of  great  use  both  in  the  vegetable  and  flower  gar- 
den. If  the  slips  are  not  washed  in  as  above  when  taken 
up  in  dry  weather,  it  is  of  great  advantage  to  grout  them, 
as  well  as  all  other  plants  you  wish  to  transplant.  This  is 
done  by  immersing  the  roots  in  water  thickened  with  rich 
earth.  It  refreshes  the  slips,  and  gives  them  a  thin  coat- 
ing of  earth  as  a  protection  against  the  atmosphere.  Draw 
the  slips  when  about  three  or  four  inches  high,  by  placing 
the  left  hand  on  the  bed  near  the  sprout  to  steady  the 
root,  and  prevent  its  being  pulled  up  with  the  sprout, 
which  is  loosened  with  the  right  hand,  taking  care  not  to 
disturb  the  fibrous  roots  of  the  mother  potato,  for  this 
continues  to  afford  a  succession  of  slips,  which  may  be 
successfully  transplanted  in  Georgia  until  the  first  of 
July.  At  the  North  they  should  not  be  put  in  later  than 
the  first  of  June. 

After  the  piece  is  planted,  go  over  it  again  in  a  few  days 
to  plant  over  any  place  where  the  slips  may  have  failed. 
As  soon  as  the  ground  gets  a  little  weedy,  scrape  it  over, 
loosening  the  earth  and  covering  up  the  weeds,  but  be 
careful  not  to  injure  the  young  slips.  Faithful  cultivation 
and  a  frequent  moving  of  the  soil  are  as  beneficial  to  this 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION   AND    CULTURE.  405 

crop,  while  young,  as  to  any  other.  At  one  of  the  hoeings 
just  before  being  laid  by,  the  ground  should  be  deeply 
moved  with  the  plow  or  spade,  but  not  close  to  the  plants. 
They  should  be  laid  by  before  the  plants  run  a  great  deal, 
after  which  they  should  be  undisturbed.  Be  careful  not  to 
cover  the  vines,  but  if  they  become  attached  to  the  soil, 
loosen  them  up  from  it,  so  that  the  vigor  of  the  plants 
may  be  thrown  into  the  roots  and  not  into  the  running 
vines.  Make  the  hills  large  and  broad,  not  pointed.  In 
hoeing,  draw  the  vines  carefully  over  towards  you  while 
you  draw  up  the  earth  and  cover  the  weeds;  then  lay 
them  carefully  back,  and  finish  the  other  side  in  the  same 
manner.  At  this  time  till  the  spaces  between  the  rows 
with  leaves  and  litter  while  the  ground  is  wet,  to  retain 
the  moisture.  After  the  vines  have  covered  the  ground 
too  much  to  use  the  hoe,  any  large  weeds  that  appear 
should  be  pulled  up  by  hand. 

The  Yam  potato  can  also  be  raised  from  seed,  but  the 
Spanish  variety,  like  the  sugar  cane  and  many  other 
plants  long  propagated  by  division,  rarely  produces  seed. 

Just  as  soon  as  the  tops  are  killed  by  frost,  the  potatoes 
should  be  gathered.  In  field  crops  they  can  be  plowed  up 
and  gathered  by  hands  which  follow  the  plow,  depositing 
the  potatoes  in  small  heaps,  but  in  the  garden  the  potato 
can  be  gathered  with  the  hoe  or  the  potato  hook,  an  im- 
plement much  used  in  gathering  crops  of  the  Irish  potato. 
It  is  better  to  do  this  in  a  dry  day,  and  many  prefer  to 
dig  their  potatoes  just  before  the  frost  kills  the  vines, 
thinking  they  keep  better. 

To  keep  sweet  potatoes  it  is  necessary,  at  the  North, 
to  store  them  in  a  dry,  warm  place,  in  well-dried  sand. 
At  the  South  they  are  safely  stored  in  hills  containing 
thirty  or  forty  bushels  each.  Let  the  potatoes,  when  dug, 
dry  in  the  sun  through  the  day.  In  digging  and  hand- 
ling thev  should  not  be  bruised.     Elevate  the  bottom  of 


406  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

the  intended  pile  about  six  inches  with  earth,  furnished 
by  digging  around  it  a  circular  trench.  On  this  put  pine 
straw  two  or  three  inches  thick,  or  dry  leaves,  on  which 
place  the  potatoes  piled  in  a  regular  cone.  If  the  weather 
is  good,  cover  them  only  with  pine  or  other  straw  for  two 
or  three  days,  until  the  potatoes  are  well  dried,  before 
their  hnal  earthing  up.  Let  the  covering  of  straw  be 
three  or  four  inches  thick;  then  cover  it  over  with  large 
strips  of  pine  bark,  commencing  at  the  base,  and  cover  as 
shingling  unto  the  top,  leaving  a  small  aperture.  Cover 
four  or  live  inches  thick  with  earth  over  all,  except  this 
aperture,  which  must  be  left  open  for  the  escape  of  the 
heat  and  moisture  generated  within.  {I'cahody.) 

Some  cover  this  opening  with  a  piece  of  pine  bark,  to 
keep  out  the  rain,  but  a  board  shelter  is  preferable.  It  is 
well  to  protect  the  hills  from  rain  by  a  temporary  roof  of 
plank.  When  the  weather  gets  warm,  in  the  spring,  take 
up  the  potatoes,  rub  off  the  sprouts,  and  keep  on  a  dry 
floor.  If  put  up  with  care  they  will  keep  until  July.  One 
important  step  toward  their  certain  preservation  is  to 
gather  them  carefully  from  the  ground,  as  the  least  bruise 
produces  rapid  decay. 

For  Seed. — Some  of  the  finest  roots  of  the  most  produc- 
tive hills  can  bo  packed  in  barrels  and  covered  with  sand 
in  a  dry,  warm  place,  free  from  all  exposure  to  frost.  A 
small  garden  crop  is  best  kept  in  barrels  with  dry  sand  or 
leaves;  if  the  latter,  a  layer  of  leaves  at  the  bottom,  then 
a  layer  of  potatoes,  then  a  layer  of  leaves,  and  so  on  until 
the  cask  is  filled.  Use  dry  leaves  and  store  in  a  dry  place. 

Use. — This  root  is  deservedly  a  favorite  at  the  table, 
and  the  most  wholesome  grown.  In  nutritious  properties 
it  excels  all  other  roots  cultivated  in  this  country,  except 
the  carrot.  Weight  for  weight,  it  contains  more  than 
double  the  quantity  of  starch,  sugar  and  other  elements 
of  nutrition  that  are  found  in  the  best  varieties  of  Irish 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  407 

potato.  For  feeding  stock  three  bushels  are  equal  to  one 
of  Indian  corn,  yielding,  on  the  same  land,  live  or  six 
times  the  food  that  is  produced  by  this  most  profitable 
grain. 

A  good-baked  sweet  potato  is  almost  as  nutritive  as 
bread.  They  are  better  baked  than  boiled.  They  are  also 
used  for  pies  and  puddings,  and  sweet  potato  rolls  are 
excellent.  In  short,  the  modes  of  cooking  this  valuable 
vegetable  are  innumerable,  but  perhaps  the  very  best  is 
Marion's  mode  of  roasting  in  the  hot  ashes. 

Maiiketix*;. — The  same  system  adopted  in  placing  the 
Irish  potato  on  the  market.  In  the  case  of  the  sweet 
potato  it  is  not  so  necessary  to  protect  against  the  sun, 
and  such  great  care  in  handling  is  not  required  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Irish  potato. 

PUMPKIN.— ( Cucurbita  Pepo.) 

A  trailing  annual,  from  India  and  the  Levant,  with 
globular  or  cylindrical  fruit.  It  has  become  so  crossed 
that  it  is  difficult  to  say  of  some  varieties  to  which  species 
they  should  be  referred. 

The  best  variety  for  family  use  is  the  Cashaw,  a  long, 
cylindrical,  curved  variety,  swollen  at  one  extremity,  of 
fine,  creamy  yellow  color,  very  solid  and  excellent  to 
use  as  a  winter  squash,  and  quite  as  valuable  as  any  for 
the  other  purposes.  Pumpkins  are  not  as  particular 
about  soil  as  melons  and  cucumbers,  but  will  grow  well 
on  any  tolerably  rich  ground.  It  is  not  best  to  grow  them 
in  the  garden,  as  they  will  mix  and  corrupt  the  seed  of 
the  other  varieties.  They  like  a  soil  freshly  reclaimed 
from  the  woods;  the  field  is  the  proper  place  for  their 
cultivation.  Plant  when  the  main  crop  of  corn  is  put  in; 
let  the  hills  be  ten  feet  apart.  Hoe  frequently  and  keep 
(lean.  Let  only  one  plant  remain  in  each  hill.  Do  not 
earth  up  the  plants,  but  keep  the  soil  about  them  light 


408 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


and  loose  with  the  hoe,  until  the  vines  prevent  further 
culture. 

Use. — In  France,  as  well  as  in  New  England,  the  pump- 
kin is  much  used  for  stews  and  soups.  The  best,  such  as 
Cashaw,  are  good  substitutes  for  the  winter  squash,  and 
make  an  excellent  pie.    They  are  also  a  valuable  food  for 

cattle.  They  can 
be  preserved  by 
boiling  and  dry- 
ing the  pulp  in  an 
oven,  or  by  cut- 
ting in  strips  and 
drying  by  the  fire, 
or  will  keep  very 
well  whole,  if  in  a 
cool,  dry  place, 
free  from  frost. 

RADISH. 
(Baphan  us  sativus.) 
This  is  an  an- 
nual Cruciferous 
plant,  grown  in 
England  as  early 
as  1548,  being  one 
of  the  plants  men- 
tioned by  Gerard. 

The  lower  leaves 
Fig.  142-Mammoth  Golden  Cashaw.  ^     j        te;     stem 

about  two  feet  high,  with  pale  violet  flowers;  the  root 
fleshy,  spindle  or  globular-shaped;  of  various  colors. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  radish,  the  spindle-rooted  and 
the  globular  or  turnip-rooted.  These  are  again  divided 
into  early  and  late  varieties,  among  which  we  will 
notice: 


(409) 


Plate  5 -New  White  Chartier  Radish. 


410  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

Early  or  Spring'  Radishes. 
Early  Scarlet  Short-Tup. — lioot  long  and  spindle- 
shaped;  leaves  very  short.  It  is  the  earliest,  most  crisp 
and  mild-flavored,  and  requires  less  space  than  the  other 
varieties.  Much  esteemed  for  its  bright  color.  The  root 
grows  partly  above  ground.  Long  Scarlet  Early  Frame 
and  Salmon  differ  very  slightly  from  this. 

White  Turnip-Rooted  has  a  white  exterior  and  a 
round  bulb,  terminating  in  a  small,  fibrous  root.  Flesh 
Avhite  and  mild. 

Yellow  Summer. — This  is  a  turnip-rooted  variety, 
named  from  its  color,  and  will  stand  the  heat  better  than 
any  other  variety. 

Winter  Radishes. 

Black  Winter  or  Spanish. — Turnip-shaped,  black, 
and  very  large;  sown  in  August  or  September  with  tur- 
nips. It  can  be  gathered  and  stored  for  winter.  The  flesh 
is  white,  hard,  and  hot.  The  White  Spanish  is  white  out- 
side, and  the  flesh  milder  than  the  Black. 

Chinese  Rose-Colored  Winter. — Conical;  bright 
rose-colored;   flesh  solid;  texture  fine;  rather  hot. 

French  Breakfast. — A  rapid  grower;  mild,  tender 
and  crisp;  an  excellent  variety  for  forcing.  The  upper 
portion  is  red  and  the  lower  part  is  white. 

Autumn  Radishes. 

Rose-Colored  Chinese. — The  flesh  is  white  and  the 
skin  red.     Flavor  very  good. 

Chartier. — Long,  scarlet  and  white-tipped. 

Culture. — Radishes  like  a  rich,  sandy  loam,  dug  a  full 
spade  deep,  but  succeed  in  any  good  garden  soil.  Their 
culture  is  very  simple.  If  manure  be  freshly  applied,  it 
should  be  at  the  bottom  of  the  soil,  or  the  roots  will  fork. 
They  are  often  sown  in  beds  four  or  five  feet  wide,  thinly 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE. 


411 


broadcast;  but  it  is 
better  to  put  them  in 
drills  about  eight  or 
teu  inches  apart,  an 
inch  deep,  scattering 
the  seed  thinly,  which 
may  be  in  beds  de- 
voted to  this  crop,  or 
m  a  d  e  between  the 
wider  rows  of  beets, 
parsnips,  onions,  car 
rots,  as  well  as  spin- 
ach, peas,  beans  and 
Irish  potatoes.  Thus 
sown,  they  will  yield 
large  crops,  without 
taking  up  room  avail- 
able for  other  pur- 
poses. 

From  the  first  of 
November  until  March 
a  succession  of  the 
Oval  Rose,  or  Scarlet 
Short  -  Top  varieties, 
can  be  grown  under 
glass.  All  that  is  re- 
quired is  a  bed  of  good, 
rich  loam,  watering 
them  occasionally,  and 
giving  air  every  day, 
except  when  the  tem- 
perature is  b  e  1  o  w 
freezing  point.  Let  the 
sash  be  off  in  every 
mild  rain,  and  let  the 
earth     come    within 


Fig.  143- China  Rose  Winter  Radish. 


412  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

seven  or  eight  inches  of  the  glass.  Oil  open  ground  crops 
can  be  made  for  fall  use,  if  desired,  by  sowing  in  succes- 
sion, after  the  summer  heats  are  over,  until  about  the  time 
of  the  first  frosts.  With  the  first  opening  of  spring,  com- 
mence planting  in  the  open  ground,  and  sow  every  week 
or  two  until  the  dry,  hot  weather  comes  on.  In  the  low 
country  South,  they  may  be  grown  all  winter,  with  no 
other  protection  than  a  little  litter  thrown  over  the  beds 
in  severe  frosts.  As  birds  are  very  fond  of  the  seed,  it  is 
sometimes  necessary  to  protect  the  beds  with  nets.  Rad- 
ishes are  of  such  rapid  growth,  that  they  will  generally 
take  care  of  themselves  after  planting  in  a  good  soil,  but 
hoeing  once  will  hasten  their  growth. 

For  Seed. — Some  of  the  finest  and  earliest  can  remain 
where  grown,  or  be  removed  to  another  bed  and  inserted 
up  to  their  leaves.  Water  frequently  until  established, 
and  while  the  flowers  are  opening.  Let  the  roots  be  three 
feet  apart,  and  do  not  permit  any  others  to  flower  near 
them,  if  pure  seeds  are  desired.  When  the  pods  turn  dry, 
gather,  dry,  thresh  out,  and  save  in  paper  bags.  The  seed 
will  keep  three  years. 

Use. — The  tops  used  to  be  boiled  ior  greens.  The  seed 
leaves,  when  they  first  appear,  are  used  as  a  salad,  with 
cress  and  mustard,  and  the  seed-pods,  gathered  young, 
form  a  good  pickle,  and  are  a  substitute  for  capers. 

There  is  a  species,  Raphanus  caudatus,  or  Rat-tailed 
radish,  of  which  the  pod  grows  a  foot  or  more  in  length, 
with  a  peculiar  puugent  but  delicate  flavor,  and  it  may 
be  eaten  like  the  root,  or  pickled.     It  is  from  Java. 

Of  the  common  species,  however,  the  roots  are  the  parts 
mainly  used.  They  are  much  relished,  while  .young  and 
crisp,  for  the  breakfast  table.  They  contain  little  beside 
water,  woody  fiber,  and  acrid  matter,  so  they  cannot  be 
verv    nourishing   or   wholesome.     When   young,  and    of 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  413 

good  varieties,  they  are  much  more  digestible  than  when 
older  and  more  fibrous. 

Marketing. — Tie  in  bundles  after  washing.  The  string 
is  placed  on  the  bundle  about  three  inches  from  the  point 
where  the  tops  leave  the  root.  This  will  make  the  vege- 
table lie  flat  in  the  package.  The  shipment  is  made  in 
crates,  or  in  ventilated  barrels. 

RAPE,  OR  COLZA. — (Brassica  Napus,  var.  oleracea.) 

Rape,  or  Colza,  is  a  biennial  plant  of  the  cabbage  tribe, 
a  native  of  England,  with  glaucous  radical  leaves  and 
yellow  flowers,  appearing  early  in  spring.  It  is  often 
called  kale. 

Culture. — Sow  at  the  same  time  with  cresses  and  mus- 
tard in  late  winter  and  spring.  Sow  in  drills  or  beds,  and 
follow  the  culture  directed  for  white  mustard.  Rape, 
sown  like  turnips  the  first  of  September,  will  survive  the 
frosts  and  afford  an  abundance  of  fine  greens  the  latter 
part  of  winter  and  early  in  spring,  wherever  the  turnip 
will  stand  the  winter. 

Seed. — A  few  plants  sown  in  August  and  September, 
and  kept  over,  will  flower  and  seed  the  next  year  abun- 
dantly. 

Use. — The  seed  leaves  are  gathered  young  for  a  small 
salad  with  cresses  and  mustard.  Later  it  is  used  like 
mustard  for  greens.  This  plant  is  much  cultivated  in 
Europe  for  the  oil  expressed  from  its  seeds. 

Rape,  Edible-Rooted,  or  French  Turnip  (B.  Napus, 
rar.  esculenla)  is  another  variety  with  edible  roots,  some- 
times cultivated  as  a  substitute  for  the  turnip.  The  root 
is  white,  carrot-shaped,  about  the  size  of  the  middle 
finger.  It  is  much  grown  in  Germany  and  France.  This 
is  not  the  French  turnip  of  the  North,  but  is  the  Teltow 
of  the  Germans. 


414  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Culture. — It  is  raised  from  seed,  which  may  be  sowii  in 
August  or  September,  aud  requires  the  same  treatment 
as  turnip.  It  likes  a  sandy  soil,  and  if  grown  in  too  rich 
earth,  it  loses  its  sweetness.  In  dry  weather,  the  beds 
must  be  watered  regularly  until  the  plants  get  three  or 
four  leaves.    To  save  seed  see  Turnip. 

Use. — It  is  much  used  in  continental  cookery,  and 
enriches  all  the  French  soups.  Stewed  in  gravy,  it  forms 
an  excellent  dish,  and,  being  white  and  carrot-shaped 
Avhen  mixed  with  carrots  upou  a  dish,  it  is  very  orna- 
mental. In  using,  there  will  be  no  necessity  of  cutting 
away  the  outer  rind,  in  which  the  flavor  chiefly  resides. 
Scraping  will  be  quite  sufficient. 

RHUBARB.— (Rheum.) 

The  garden  Rhubarb,  or  Pie-plant,  is  a  perennial,  of  the 
same  natural  family  as  the  common  dock.  The  varieties 
now  cultivated  are  hybrids,  which  have  supplanted  the 
original  species,  Rheum  Rhaponticum,  palmatum,  and 
undulatum,  excelling  them  in  size,  earliness,  and  delicacy 
of  flavor.  The  best  sorts  are  the  Early,  which  is  of  but 
medium  size;  Myatt's  Linnaeus,  rather  early,  and  yield- 
ing large  crops  of  large  leaves,  and  the  best  flavored  of 
all,  Myatt's  Victoria,  which  is  two  weeks  later;  stalks 
very  large  and  good;  St.  Martin's,  a  new  Scotch  variety, 
with  a  rich,  spicy  flavor. 

Rhubarb  is  remarkable  for  the  quantity  of  phosphates 
and  soda  it  extracts  from  the  earth.  Crude  soda  might  be 
added  to  the  soil.  Guano  and  bone-dust  are  very  benefi- 
cial. 

Rhubarb  succeeds  best  in  a  rich,  deep,  rather  light 
loam,  and  in  a  situation  open  to  the  air  and  light.  Trench 
the  ground  two  spades  deep.  It  may  be  raised  from  seed, 
but  thus  grown,  sports  into  new  varieties.  It  is  best  pro- 
pagated by  dividing  the  roots,  reserving  a  bud  to  each 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE  415 

piece.  These  may  be  set  about  two  inches  deep  in  rows 
three  feet  apart,  and  from  eighteen  to  thirty  inches 
(according  to  the  sort)  in  the  row.  All  the  culture  re- 
quired is  to  keep  the  surface  soil  light  and  free  from 
weeds.  The  plantation  may  be  made  in  the  fall,  after  the 
leaves  are  killed  by  frost,  and  protected  by  litter,  or  as 
early  in  the  spring  as  the  weather  and  soil  permit.  It 
should  not  be  disturbed  after  growth  commences.  Pluck 
no  leaves  the  first  year,  after  which  the  crop  will  be 
abundant.  Make  a  new  plantation  about  once  in  five 
years.  If  a  plant  or  two  in  summer  dies  out,  as  it  is  apt 
to  do  in  the  South,  it  is  best  to  remove,  the  next  autumn, 
the  old  plant,  together  with  soil  in  which  it  grew,  and 
supply  fresh  soil.  New  plants  to  reset  the  vacancy  can 
be  obtained  by  uncovering  an  old  crown  and  cutting  from 
it  a  bud  with  a  piece  of  root  attached. 

To  obtain  the  largest  product,  the  flower  stems  should 
be  broken  off  when  they  appear,  for  the  plant  is  weak- 
ened by  permitting  it  to  seed.  A  yearly  surface  dressing 
of  well-rotted  manure  should  be  given,  for  the  stalks  to 
be  good  must  be  quickly  grown. 

Forcing. — This  plant  is  forced  by  placing  a  large  flower 
pot  over  the  roots,  and  covering  with  stable  manure.  The 
more  common  way  is  to  surround  the  plant  with  a  small 
barrel  without  a  head;  a  cover  is  placed  over  it  at  night 
and  in  cold  days,  and  it  is  then  surrounded  with  a  pile  of 
stable  manure  built  up  in  as  sharp  a  cone  as  it  can  be 
made  to  form.  If  the  root  is  good  it  will  soon  fill  the  bar- 
rel with  shoots.  The  plant  should  be  permitted  to  rest 
after  this  crop  through  the  season,  and  others  be  selected 
for  the  purpose  the  next  year.  This  operation,  at  the 
North,  is  common  enough,  but  at  the  South  it  is  generally 
death  to  the  plant. 

Use. — The  leaf-stem,  or  petiole  of  this  plant,  when  the 
external  skin  is  removed,  is  cut  up  in  thin  slices,  and, 


416  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

having  an  agreeable  acid,  is  used  exactly  like  the  apple 
for  pies,  tarts,  and  sauce  at  a  time  that  fruits  cannot  be 
obtained.  Gather  them  while  young,  just  as  they  attain 
their  full  size,  before  they  lose  their  fine  flavor.  They 
should  be  gently  slipped  from  the  root  without  using  a 
knife. 

This  plant  is  in  almost  universal  use  in  England, 
France,  and  the  Northern  States,  and  succeeds  perfectly 
well  in  Middle  Georgia. 

SALSIFY. — ( Tragopogon    porrifolium.) 

Salsify,  or  Vegetable  Oyster,  is  a  hardy,  tap-rooted 
biennial,  a  native  of  various  parts  of  Europe,  with  long 
tapering  root  of  a  fleshy,  white  substance,  the  herbage 
smooth  and  glaucous,  the  flower-stem  three  or  four  feet 
high,  and  the  flower  of  a  dull  purple  color.  It  belongs  to 
the  Composite  family. 

Mammoth  Sandwich  Island  is  the  variety  generally 
cultivated  in  the  South.  It  grows  vigorously  to  double 
the  size  of  the  older  forms,  and  yields  an  excellent  flavor. 
The  Long  White  is  the  old  standard  salsify. 

Salsify  likes  a  light,  mellow  soil,  dug  very  deeply,  as 
for  carrots  arid  other  tap-rooted  plants.  Sow  early  in 
spring,  and  for  a  succession  until  the  summer  heats  come 
on,  rather  thickly,  in  drills  an  inch  deep  and  a  foot  apart. 
An  ounce  of  seed  will  sow  a  square  rod.  Scarlet  radish 
may  also  be  sown  thinly  in  the  same  drills.  When  an  inch 
high,  thin  the  plants,  and  continue  by  degrees  until  the 
plants  are  six  inches  apart.  If  the  soil  is  deep  and  moist, 
they  will  grow  all  summer  and  not  run  up  to  seed. 
Watering  in  dry  weather,  especially  with  guano  water, 
will  greatly  invigorate  the  plants.  Cultivate  the  soil, 
and  keep  it  free  from  weeds,  as  for  beets  and  carrots. 
The  roots  mav  be  drawn  and  stored  in  sand,  but  where 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE. 


417 


the  winters  are 
open  should  remain 
in  the  ground  all 
winter,  to  be  pulled 
as  wanted. 

For  Seed. — Leave 
or  transplant  some 
of  the  best  plants 
in  spring,  which 
will  produce  seed 
abundantly.  Gather 
and  dry  in  the 
heads,  where  they 
may  be  kept  until 
wanted. 

Use.— The  stalks 
of  old  plants  are 
sometimes  cut  in 
the  spring  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  aspara- 
gus. The  roots  are 
boiled  or  stewed 
like  carrots,  and 
have  a  mild,  sweet 
flavor,  being  whole- 
s  o  m  e,  palatable, 
and  tolerably  nutri- 
tive. They  are 
mostly  cooked  to 
imitate  oyster.-:,  to 
which  the  flavor 
has  some  resem- 
blance. 

Marketing. 

After  washing, 
six    or   eight    roots 

27 


Fig.  144— Sandwich  Island  Salsify. 


418  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

are  tied  together  in  each  bundle  by  a  cord  around  the 
short  tops  left  on,  and  another  at  the  lower  end  of  roots. 
Ship  in  crates. 

SAVORY.— (Satureja.) 

This  is  a  genus  of  Labiate  plants  of  which  there  are 
two  species  in  cultivation — the  Summer  Savory  (Satureja 
hortensis),  a  hardy  annual;  and  Winter  Savory  (Satureja 
high  tana),  a  shrubby  perennial;  both  natives  of  Italy,  and 
cultivated  for  their  warm,  aromatic  flavors. 

Both  may  be  propagated  by  seed.  Sow  in  spring,  as 
soon  as  the  ground  is  a  little  warm,  moderately  thick,  in 
shallow  drills,  and  cover  lightly.  For  Summer  Savory 
the  rows  should  be  twelve  inches  apart,  and  the  plants 
thinned  to  six  inches;  the  thinnings  may  be  transplanted 
to  the  same  distance.  Winter  Savory  requires  more  room; 
the  plants  should  be  a  foot  apart,  in  drills  fifteen  inches 
asunder.  This  can  be  propagated  also,  by  slips,  cuttings, 
or  division  of  the  roots.  All  the  care  required  is  to  keep 
free  from  weeds.  Seed  can  be  gathered  as  it  ripens  from 
a  root  or  two  left  uncut  for  the  purpose. 

Use. — The  leaves  of  these  herbs  are  much  employed  in 
soups,  salads,  stuffings,  etc.,  on  account  of  their  agreeable 
pungent  flavor.  They  are  also  said  to  possess  the  de- 
sirable power  of  "expelling  fleas  from  a  bed."  Formerly, 
they  were  much  used  in  medicine.  Gather  when  they 
come  into  bloom,  and  dry  for  winter  use  in  the  shade, 
pound  in  a  mortar,  pass  through  a  sieve,  ami  put  up  in 
bottles  closely  stopped,  and  they  will  retain  their  fra- 
grance any  length  of  time. 

SEA  KALE. — (C ramie  maratima.) 

This  is  a  hardy  Cruciferous  perennial,  a  native  of  the 
dry,  shingly  shores  of  Great  Britain.  The  plant  is  smooth, 
of  a  beautiful  glaucous  hue,  covered  with  a  fine  meal,  aud 
with  large,  sinuated  radical  leaves.  The  flower  is  of  a  rich 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE. 


41U 


white  appearance,  and  a  honeyed  smell.     It  has  proba- 
bly been  cultivated  in  gardens  one  hundred  and  fifty 


present  century,  though  the  English  peasantry  from  time 
immemorial  have  been  in  the  habit  of  gathering  the 
blanched  shoots  as  they  pushed  through  the  sand,  and 
boiling  them  as  greens. 
Though  a  native  of  a  cool 
climate,  it  succeeds  per- 
fectly in  Middle  Georgia. 

The  following  represent 
the  varieties  proven  to  be 
suitable  for  the  South: 
Early  Curled  Siberian  or 
Dwarf  German  Greens, 
Dwarf  Green  Curled  Scotch 
or  Norfolk. 

Culture. — The  native  soil 
of  sea  kale  is  a  deep  sand, 
mingled  with  matter  from 
the  sea.  It  likes  a  deep 
mould,  or  sandy  loam,  and 
if  poor,  well-putrilied  dung 
and  half  -  decayed  leaves 
may  be  added.  Upon  the 
richness  and  proper  pre- 
paration of  the  soil  the  luxuriance  of  the  plant  depends. 
The  situation  must  be  free  from  all  shade  of  trees. 
Sea  kale  is  propagated  by  seeds,  or  offsets,  or  cuttings 
of  the  root;  but  the  best  plants  are  raised  from 
seed.  Sow  the  seed  in  a  well-prepared  soil,  rich,  or  made 
so  with  well-decomposed  manure,  and  shaded  by  a  fence, 
or  building,  from  the  midday  sun.  Draw  the  drills. one 
foot  apart,  and  scatter  the  seed  thinly  along  the  drills. 
The  beds  should  be  about  four  feet  wide,  for  convenience. 


Fig.  145  — Sea  Kale. 


420  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Sow  very  early  in  spring.  If  the  outer  coat  of  the  seed  be 
bruised,  without  injuring  the  inside,  the  germination  will 
be  accelerated.  The  plants  are  very  slow  in  appearing; 
never  less  than  three  weeks,  often  four  or  five  months, 
and  sometimes  a  full  year.  Water  plentifully  in  dry 
weather,  and  keep  the  seed-beds  free  from  weeds  during 
the  season.  Thin  the  plants  as  they  appear  to  an  inch 
apart,  and,  as  they  grow  strong,  to  two  or  three  inches, 
and  keep  free  from  weeds.  In  the  autumn,  when  their 
leaves  decay,  clear  them  away,  and  earth  them  up  about 
the  crowns  with  an  inch  or  two  of  soil  from  the  alleys, 
or  leaf-mould  from  the  woods,  and  cover  over  the  whole 
bed,  four  inches  deep  with  long  litter,  and  leave  it  to 
stand  until  the  time  of  transplanting. 

As  early  as  possible  the  spring  ensuing,  prepare  the 
permanent  bed  for  those  you  wish  to  transplant.  Those 
raised  where  they  are  to  remain  succeed  best. 

Let  the  soil  be  light,  and  well  enriched  with  good  com- 
post. Leaf  manure  is  better  than  hot  dung.  Dig  it  up 
deeply  and  thoroughly  at  least  two  feet  deep,  and  lay  it 
off  in  beds  three  feet  wide,  with  alleys  two  feet  in  width 
between.  Upon  each  of  these  beds  plant  two  rows  of 
plants  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  the  same  distance  in 
the  row.  Take  up  the  plants  very  carefully  with  the 
trowel,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  roots.  If  you  plant  cut- 
tings of  old  plants  put  two  in  each  place,  to"  guard  against 
failures.  In  all  cases,  be  careful  in  transplanting  that  the 
roots  are  not  broken  or  dried  by  exposure  to  the  sun  and 
air.  During  the  dry,  hot  weather  of  summer,  the  beds 
should  be  liberally  watered  the  first  season  after  replant- 
ing, as  upon  their  summer  growth  depends  the  next 
season's  crop.  Keep  the  soil  clean,  and  after  the  plants 
get  well  rooted  dig  over  the  ground  between  the  rows, 
making  the  soil  as  fine  as  possible. 

The  coming  autumn  the  earthing-up  must  be  a  little 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  421 

increased;  give  a  coat  of  leaf -mould,  or  compost  manure, 
and  over  this  a  thick  coat  of  leaves,  which  will  bring  the 
plants  on  early  in  the  spring.  The  next  spring  remove 
the  litter,  and  dig  in  some  of  the  manure  into  the  alleys, 
and  then,  if  you  blanch  with  pots,  spread  over  the  beds 
about  an  inch  deep  of  clean  sand.  The  shoots  may  be 
blanched,  and  a  few  cut  for  use,  but  sparingly,  as  the 
plants  must  not  be  weakened.  The  better  way  is  not  to 
remove  the  covering  of  leaves  until  you  have  gathered 
what  you  desire.  On  a  portion  of  the  bed,  to  produce 
early,  the  winter  covering  of  compost  and  leaves  must  be 
yearly  applied. 

Another  portion  must  be  left  uncovered  until  the 
shoots  begin  to  rise,  and  then  covered  with  eight  or  ten 
inches  of  sand,  for  a  later  crop.  Each  spring  give  it  a 
dressing  of  salt,  like  asparagus,  and  dig  over  the  surface 
of  the  becl,  as  before.  Retain  for  each  plant  only  four  or 
five  of  the  best  suckers,  at  regular  distances  around  the 
stem;  suffer  none  of  these  to  seed,  if  you  would  not 
greatly  injure  the  next  year's  growth. 

Sea  kale,  though  eatable  without  blanching,  as  spring- 
greens,  is  vastly  improved  when  blanched.  This  may  be 
done  by  earthing-up  the  crowns  eight  or  ten  inches  with 
sand,  or  light  mould,  or  by  retaining  the  coat  of  dry 
leaves  put  over  the  beds  in  autumn. 

This  covering  may  remain  until  the  cutting  ceases  in 
the  spring,  when  all  covering  must  be  removed  at  even- 
ing, or  in  cloudy  weather.  The  shoots  will  raise  the 
covering  when  in  a  fit  state  for  cutting.  The  courses  of 
leaves  should  be  from  five  to  twelve  inches  thick,  accord- 
ing to  the  age  of  the  plants,  and  as  directed  above,  may 
remain  on  all  winter.  But  a  large  flower  pot,  with  the 
hole  in  the  bottom  stopped,  and  light  at  the  edges  care- 
fully excluded  by  a  coat  of  litter  is  the  best  of  all  modes 
of  blanching. 


422  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

For  Seed. — A  plant  that  has  not  been  blanched  or  cut 
from  must  be  allowed  to  run  to  seed  in  the  spring.  A 
single  plant  will  produce  an  abundant  supply. 

Use. — Sea  kale  comes  on  early  in  March,  when  vege- 
tables are  scarce,  and  affords  a  very  wholesome  and 
agreeable  table  luxury.  The  young  shoots  and  leaf  stalks, 
before  unfolding,  are  boiled  and  dressed  like  asparagus, 
are  employed  in  soups,  and  also  make  an  agreeable  salad. 

SHALLOT,  OR  ESCHALLOT.— (Allium  Ascolonicum.) 

This  is  a  plant  of  the  onion  tribe,  which  derives  its 
botanical  name  from  growing  wild  at  Ascalon,  in  Syria. 
It  has  a  strong  taste,  but  as  the  strong  flavor  is  not  offen- 
sive, like  the  garlic,  and  does  not  remain  so  long  upon 
the  palate  as  the  onion,  it  is  often  preferred.  The  root  is 
bulbous,  similar  to  that  of  garlic  in  being  divided  into 
cloves,  included  in  a  membrane.  It  rarely  sends  up  a 
flower-stock,  and  hence  is  often  called  the  barren  onion. 

The  best  sorts  are  the  Common  and  the  Long-Keeping, 
of  which  last  the  bulbs  have  been  kept  two  years.  The 
"  Big  Shallot  "  of  our  gardens  is  Rocambole. 

Culture. — It  is  propagated  from  the  offsets  of  the  roots. 
Prepare  the  beds  as  for  the  rest  of  the  onion  tribe,  but  it 
will  do  with  not  quite  as  rich  a  soil.  Let  the  soil  be  made 
perfectly  light  and  friable.  The  last  of  September  is  the 
best  time  for  planting  the  early  crop,  but  they  may  be 
planted  any  time  during  the  autumn  and  winter.  The 
early  planted  ones  come  into  use  early  in  May.  Make  the 
beds  four  feet  wide,  and  mark  them  off  in  drills  an  inch 
deep,  ten  or  twelve  inches  distant,  and  put  the  offsets  out 
six  inches  apart  in  the  drills.  Do  not  cover  deeply;  leave 
the  point  of  the  clove  just  even  with  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  press  the  soil  around.  Keep  the  ground  free 
from  weeds,  but  be  particular,  in  hoeing,  not  to  earth  up 
the  bulbs.     The  leek  is  the  onlv  member  of  the  onion 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  423 

tribe  that  is  not  injured  by  gathering  the  earth  about  its 
stem.  Take  up  the  bulbs  when  ripe,  dry  in  the  shade, 
and  preserve  as  garlic.  They  may  be  kept  until  the  next 
spring. 

i  'se. — The  shallot,  though  more  pungent  than  some 
members  of  the  onion  family,  is  preferred  by  many  in 
seasoning  gravies,  soups,  sauces,  and  other  culinary  pre- 
parations, and  is  by  some  considered  almost  indispen- 
sable in  the  preparation  of  a  good  beefsteak.  It  can  be 
pickled  in  the  same  manner  as  the  onion. 

SKIRKET.— ( Slum  sisarum.) 

Skirret  is  a  perennial  Umbelliferous  plant  from  China, 
known  in  Europe  since  1548.  It  grows  a  foot  high,  with 
pinnate  lower  leaves.  The  root  is  composed  of  several 
fleshy  tubers,  the  size  of  the  little  finger,  joined  at  the 
crown. 

Culture. — Skirret  likes  a  deep,  rich,  rather  moist  soil, 
with  the  manure  applied  at  the  bottom.  The  situation 
should  be  open.  It  is  propagated  by  seeds,  or  by  offsets 
of  established  roots.  Seedlings  produce  the  best  roots. 
Sow  in  spring,  when  the  ground  becomes  warm,  in  drills 
an  inch  deep  and  ten  inches  apart.  When  the  plants  are 
an  inch  or  two  high,  thin  to  six  or  eight  inches  apart. 
Cultivate  like  salsify,  and  keep  clear  from  weeds.  They 
will  be  fit  for  use  in  August,  but  can  remain  in  the  ground 
to  use  as  wanted  all  winter.  Slips  of  the  old  roots  may 
be  set  out  nine  inches  apart  and  cultivated  in  the  same 
manner.  Leave  some  of  the  plants  in  the  ground,  and 
they  will  throw  up  seed-stalks  and  ripen  seed  during  the 
summer  following. 

Use. — The  tubers  are  boiled  and  are  very  sweet,  some- 
what like  the  parsnip,  and  are  thought  more  palatable  by 
some,  but  are  disagreeable  to  many.  They  are  boiled, 
and  served  up  with  butter,  or  cold,  with  vinegar  and  oil, 


424  GARDENING    FOK    THE    SOUTH'. 

and  are  also  cooked,  like  salsify,  in  batter.  It  was 
formerly  esteemed  as  "  the  sweetest,  whitest,  and  most 
pleasant  of  roots/' 

SORREL.— (Rumex.) 

The  sorrels  are  perennial  plants  belonging  to  the  same 
family  as  dock  and  rhubarb.  There  are  three  species 
cultivated — viz.:  Rumex  acetosa,  or  common  English 
garden  sorrel,  of  which  the  Belleville  variety  is  best;  R. 
scutatus,  French  or  Hound-Leaved  Sorrel,  a  trailing 
plant,  with  more  acid  leaves  than  the  last;  A',  mvntanus, 
Mountain  Sorrel,  like  the  last,  a  native  of  France.  Of 
this  last  there  are  two  varieties — the  Common  Mountain 
and  the  Green  Mountain  Sorrel.  The  first  has  pale  green, 
blistered  leaves,  less  acid  than  the  common  English,  and 
does  not  run  quickly  to  flower.  The  Green  Mountain  Sor- 
rel is  earlier  than  this,  and  is  the  latest  to  flower,  pro- 
ducing freely  dark-green  leaves  of  considerable  acidity. 
The  flowers  of  the  first  and  last  species  are  dioecious. 

Sorrel  will  grow  from  seed,  or  dividing  the  roots  early 
in  spring.  Sow  in  drills  fifteen  inches  apart  and  as  they 
come  up,  thin  them  to  one  foot  in  the  row;  or  part  the 
roots  in  the  autumn  or  spring,  and  set  them  out  at  the 
same  distance.  Water  them  occasionally  until  well  estab- 
lished. Keep  the  plants  free  from  weeds;  cut  down  the 
stalks  occasionally  in  the  summer,  and  cover  the  crowns 
with  a  very  little  fresh  earth,  that  they  may  send  up  large 
and  tender  leaves.  When,  in  two  or  three  years,  the 
plants  begin  to  dwindle,  replant  them  in  fresh  soil.  For 
seed,  let  some  of  the  stalks  run  up,  and  gather  when  ripe. 

Use. — Sorrel  is  much  used  by  the  French  in  soups, 
sauces  and  salads,  and  is  also  cooked  as  spinach,  a 
method  which  many  think  improves  its  flavor,  especially 
if  cooked  with  turnip  tops.  Some  use. the  leaves  in  pies 
as  a  substitute  for  rhubarb. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  425 

SPINACH. — (Spinacia  oleracca.) 

Spinach  is  a  hardy  annual  of  the  same  family  with  the 
beet  (Chenopodiaceae),  and  has  been  cultivated  in  English 
gardens  since  1508,  and  probably  long  before.  Some 
refer  its  origin  to  Western  Asia.  The  leaves  are  large, 
stems  hollow,  and  the  male  and  female  flowers  produced 
on  different  plants.  Its  name,  Spinacea,  is  derived  from 
the  Latin,  spina,  a  thorn,  on  account  of  the  prickly  seed 
of  one  variety. 

There  are  four  sorts,  three  of  which  are  smooth  seeded, 
and  the  other  prickly. 

Round-Leaved  has  large,  roundish,  and  fleshy  leaves, 
and  is  the  sort  commonly  used  for  spring  and  summer 
crops.    Late  in  the  season  it  soon  runs  to  seed. 

Lettuce-Leaved. — Leaves  rounder  than  the  last; 
fleshy,  or  thick,  and  of  a  dark-green  color;  nearly  or  quite 
as  hardy  as  the  last. 

Prickly  -  Seeded,  ok  Winter  Spinach. — Leaves 
smaller  and  thinner  than  the  other  sorts,  triangular- 
shaped,  and  very  hardy. 

Henderson's  Savoy-Leaved  or  Bloomsdale  is  a 
variety  producing  leaves  very  much  folded  and  bloated. 
For  this  reason  it  stands  shipping  well.  It  is  one  of  the 
earliest  varieties  grown. 

Long  Standing  is  a  good  fall  and  spring  variety;  has 
thick  leaves;  prostrate. 

Culture. — For  the  winter  crop,  a  light,  dry,  but  fertile 
soil  is  preferable;  while  for  spring  sowings,  to  have  them 
long  in  use,  a  rich,  moist  loam  is  desirable.  The  lime  and 
salt  mixture  with  superphosphate  of  lime  will  supply 
most  of  the  inorganic  elements  required  by  spinach.  Give 
them  an  open  situation.  The  earth  should  be  well  pulver- 
ized before  sowing,  as  fine  tilth  greatly  promotes  vigor- 


426  GAKDENING    FOK    THE    SOUTH. 

ous  growth.  Spinach  is  propagated  from  seed  so  easily, 
and  is  so  valuable  for  winter  greens,  that  no  garden 
should  be  without  it. 

The  first  crop  is  sown  at  the  South  the  first  of  October, 
and  in  succession  until  winter  sets  in,  and  on  the  roast 
through  the  winter  months  the  sowings  are  continued. 
At  New  York  the  first  of  September  is  the  proper  season. 
For  this  crop  the  prickly  is  the  hardiest,  but  the  Lettuce- 
Leaved  is  the  best.  Another  sowing  should  be  made  as 
soon  as  spring  opens,  and  they  may  be  continued  until 
the  summer  heats  come  on,  when  the  plants  will  quickly 
run  to  seed.  Use  the  smooth-seeded  kinds  for  the  later 
crops. 

Sow  thinly  in  drills  an  inch  deep,  about  fifteen  inches 
apart,  or  eighteen  inches  for  the  larger  varieties.  Sow  in 
moist  weather,  or  if  dry,  water  the  seed  in  the  drill  before 
covering,  for  if  moisture  be  wanting  during  the  early 
stages  of  vegetation,  not  half  the  seed  will  come  up.  Thin 
them  by  degrees,  separating  them  at  first  only  an  inch  or 
two  as  the  plants  grow  fit  for  use.  Thinning  should  com- 
mence when  they  attain  four  leaves  an  inch  or  so  in 
breadth.  The  plants  must  finally  stand  in  the  drill,  for 
the  prickly  spinach  five  inches,  and  the  round  leaf  eight 
inches.  Keep  the  rows  frequently  hoed  and  free  from 
weeds.  Hoe  in  dry  weather.  Spinach  kept  clean  and 
thinned  properly  is  not  so  liable  to  die  out  in  winter. 
During  severe  weather  a  thin  covering  of  straw  or  ever- 
green brush  is  essential  for  the  protection  of  the  winter 
crop  north  of  Washington,  and  is  very  beneficial  south  of 
that  point.  Regular  gathering  greatly  promotes  the 
health  of  the  plants.  The  outer  leaves  only  should  be 
used,  leaving  the  centre  uninjured  to  supply  successive 
crops.  At  the  end  of  the  winter,  the  soil  betAveen  the 
rows  of  the  winter-standing  crop  should  be  gently  stirred, 
to  assist  their  production  in  early  spring.     For  summer 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  427 

spinach  and  all  other  plants  cultivated  for  their  leaves, 
the  soil  cannot  be  too  rich. 

For  Seed.— Borne  of  the  latest  plants  of  the  standing- 
crop  should  be  allowed  to  run  up  to  seed;  let  these  plants 
be  eight  or  ten  inches  apart.  Spinach  is  dioecious,  and 
the  male  plants  may  be  removed  when  the  seed  begins  to 
form.  When  ripe,  pull  the  plants,  dry  thoroughly  on  a 
cloth,  and  beat  out  and  store  the  seed  in  paper  bags. 
Spinach  seed  will  keep  three  years. 

Use. — Spinach  and  German  Greens  are  the  best  plants 
to  raise  for  a  supply  of  early  spring  greens.  Spinach 
eaten  freely  is  laxative  and  cooling;  it  is  not  very  nutri- 
tive, but  very  wholesome.  It  is  so  innocent  that  it  is  per- 
mitted to  be  eaten  in  diseases  where  most  vegetables  are 
proscribed.  The  leaves  are  very  tender  and  succulent, 
and  of  a  most  beautiful  green  when  boiled.  The  juice  is 
often  used  for  coloring  various  culinary  preparations. 

SPINACH,  NEW  ZEALAND.— (Tetragonia  expansa.) 

An  annual  plant  brought  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks  from 
New  Zealand  in  1772,  with  thick,  succulent,  pale  green, 
procumbent,  deltoid  leaves,  and  with  small,  green,  incon- 
spicuous flowers.  It  grows  four  or  five  feet  high,  and  is 
of  the  same  natural  family  as  the  ice  plant. 

Culture. — New  Zealand  Spinach  may  be  sown  early  in 
April.  The  best  soil  is  loam,  deeply  dug,  and  enriched  by 
a  liberal  supply  of  manure.  Make  the  drills  three  feet 
apart,  and  scatter  the  seed  about  six  inches  apart  in  the 
drill,  and  cover  them  an  inch  deep.  Thin  out  the  plants 
to  twenty  inches  apart.  Keep  the  ground  thoroughly 
tilled  and  free  from  weeds,  that  the  plants  may  make  a 
luxuriant  growth.  In  five  or  six  weeks  the  young  leaves 
will  be  ready  to  be  picked.  Preserve  the  leading  shoot, 
and  the  branches  will  continue  long  in  bearing,  as  in 
autumn    they    survive    a    pretty    heavy    frost.     Twenty 


428  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

plants  are  enough  for  a  family.  Seed  may  be  gathered  as 
it  ripens,  dried  carefully  in  the  shade,  and  put  up  in  paper 
bags. 

It  is  used  as  a  substitute  in  summer  for  the  common 
spinach.  Swiss  Chard  is  a  better  one.  The  seed  vessels 
make  a  good  pickle. 

SQUASH.— ( CucurUta  Melopepo.) 

The  squash  is  a  tender  trailing  annual,  and  was  first 
brought  to  England  in  1597.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Levant. 
It  is  a  much  esteemed  garden  vegetable,  and  in  some  of 

its  varieties  can  be 
had  for  the  table  the 
greater  part  of  the 
year. 

Summer  Squashes. 
The  best  are  the 
Early  Bush  Scollop, 
which    is    small,    and 

Fig.  14G— Mammuth  Summer  Crookneck.  ' 

either  white  or  golden 
yellow  in  its  two  subvarieties;  both  good;  the  Summer 
Crookneck,  also  a  bush  variety,  bright  yellow,  covered 
with  warts;  Bergen,  small,  bell-shaped,  striped  dark 
green  and  white;  used  green,  like  the  preceding,  and 
when  the  shell  hardens,  becomes  still  better,  being  very 
dry  and  rich,  and  keeps  well. 

Winter  Squashes  are  of  many  varieties;  as  Valpa- 
raiso or  Cocoanut,  as  it  is  named  from  its  shape.  It  has 
a  rough,  grayish  coat,  flesh  deep  orange,  very  dry,  and 
sugary.  It  is  the  best  of  all,  but  a  great  runner,  and  bears 
but  moderately.  Boston  Marrow,  Bell,  Canada  Crook- 
neck, Hubbard,  and  Perfect  Gem  are  all  good  winter 
sorts.  The  Hubbard  is  a  variety  of  great  excellence,  re- 
lated to  the  Valparaiso.  The  Cashaw  Pumpkin  is  a  good 
substitute  for  the  winter  squash. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE. 


429 


Vegetable  Marrow  Squashes  are  in  England  the 
favorite  sort,  and  used  from  the  time  the  blossom  drops 
until  matured.    The  Custard  Vegetable  Marrow  is  now 


Fig.  147— New  Red  Hubbard  Squash. 

the  kind  preferred  there.  From  a  single  trial  they  do  not 
appear  productive. 

Culture. — The  squash  is  planted  at  the  same  time  as  the 
cucumber  and  melon.  Put  six  or  eight  seeds  in  a  hill, 
and  thin  out  to  two  or  three 
when  they  get  up.  The  bush 
squashes  should  be  five  feet 
apart,  and  the  winter  varieties 
at  least  ten.  For  cultivation,  see 
Cucumber.  Squashes  are  much 
better  grown  in  rich  soil ;  do  not 
plant  them  near  the  cucumber 

Fig.  148— Boston  Marrow. 

or  melon,  if  you  would  not  have 

worthless  seed  from  all  the  plants  in  their  vicinity. 
Gather  summer  kinds  while  the  finger  nail  can  easily 
penetrate  the  rind;  they  must  be  plucked  as  soon  as  fit 
for  use,  or  the  fruitfulness  of  the  vines  will  be  much 


430 


GAUDEAIAG    FUK    THE    SOUTH. 


impaired.  To  keep  winter  squashes  they  must  be  put 
away  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  free  from  frost. 

Use. — The  squash  is  a  very  wholesome  and  tolerably 
nutritious  vegetable,  prepared  for  the  table  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  turnip,  for  which  it  is  an  excellent  sub- 
stitute to  eat  with  fresh  meat.  To  be  fit  for  use  after 
being  boiled  tender,  the  summer  sorts  must  be  squeezed 
between  two  plates,  for  when  full  of  water,  as  often 
served,  it  is  not  tit  to  be  eaten.  The  winter  squashes 
should  be  boiled  dry.  They  make  a  good  pie,  like  the 
pumpkin  and  the  sweet  potato. 

Marketing. — Shipped  in  barrels  or  crates.  The  home 
market  should  be  cultivated,  because  it  is  difficult  to  com- 
pete with  Northern  gardeners  since  his  squash  can  be 
stored  through  the  winter  for  the  early  spring  trade. 

TANYAH. — ( ( 'alocasia   esculenta.) 

This  is  a  large-leaved,  tuberous  rooted,  perennial  plant 
of  the  Arum  family,  much  cultivated  in  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  and  forms  the  principal  ingredient  in  the  favor- 
ite pol,  a  food  much  in  use  there,  and  remarkable  for  its 
fattening  properties. 

It  is  cultivated  somewhat  near  Charleston,  and  along 
the  coast,  and  is  perfectly  hardy  here,  and  probably  near 
the  coast  as  far  north  as  Washington.  The  foliage  is 
quite  striking. 

Culture. — It  may  be  planted  in  any  rich,  well-drained, 
low  spot.  Select  the  eyes  or  buds,  and  plant  like  the 
potato.  The  small  roots  are  the  ones  generally  reserved 
for  this  purpose.  There  are  two  distinct  kinds,  named 
from  their  color  the  pink  and  the  blue,  of  which  the  latter 
is  thought  by  many  to  be  the  most  farinaceous,  but  others 
prefer  the  taste  of  the  pink  variety.  The  sets  may  be 
put  out  in  March  or  early  in  April,  and  the  most  attention 
required  is  to  keep  the  soil  clean  and  mellow.    The  rows 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  431 

may  be  three  or  four  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  two  feet 
in  the  rows.  It  comes  to  maturity  the  autumu  after  plant- 
ing, and  may  remain  in  the  bed  until  wanted.  It  keeps 
better  than  either  the  sweet  or  Irish  potato.  It  is  pre- 
pared for  the  table  by  simply  roasting,  and  is  eaten  with 
salt.  By  many  they  are  much  liked,  as  they  are  quite 
farinaceous. 

TARRAGON. — (Artemisia  Dracunculus.) 

This  is  a.  perennial  plant,  of  the  same  genus  as  the 
wormwood,  but  its  fragrant  smell  and  warm  aromatic 
taste  have  introduced  it  into  the  kitchen  garden. 

Vulture. — This  plant  does  not  require  a  rich  soil,  and  as 
it  is  a  native  of  a  cold  climate,  it  is  best  to  give  it  a  bleak 
winter  exposure.  Poor,  dry  earth  is  necessary  to  perfect 
its  flavor.  Tarragon  is  propagated  by  seed,  slips,  cut- 
tings and  parting  of  the  root.  The  latter  is  the  easiest 
mode  and  most  generally  practiced.  It  may  be  planted 
in  early  spring,  the  plants  being  ten  inches  apart.  Give 
a  little  water  in  dry  weather  until  they  are  rooted.  As 
.they  run  up,  if  seed  is  not  desired,  cut  down  the  seed 
stalks  and  they  will  shoot  up  afresh.  Keep  them  free 
from  weeds.  It  has  been  cultivated  here  with  success. 
It  must  be  taken  up,  divided,  and  reset  every  year,  or  it 
will  die  out. 

Use. — Tarragon  is  used  in  salads,  to  correct  the  cold- 
ness of  other  herbs.  Its  leaves  are  excellent  pickled,  or 
for  flavoring  vinegar  to  be  used  for  fish  sauces,  or  with 
horse-radish  for  beefsteaks. 

THYME.— (Thymus.) 

Common  Thyme  (Thymus  vulgaris)  is  a  low,  evergreen 
undershrub,  a  native  of  Spain,  Italy,  and  Greece,  culti- 
vated in  English  gardens  since  1548,  and  probably  earlier. 
Its  name  (Thymus)  comes  from  the  Greek  word  for  cour- 


432  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

age;  as  it  was  thought  to  renew  the  strength  and  spirits. 
It  has  a  pleasant,  aromatic  smell,  and  a  warm,  pungent 
taste.  There  are  two  varieties — the  broad  and  narrow 
leaved. 

Lemon  Thyme  is  also  a  low,  trailing  evergreen  shrub, 
seldom  rising  above  four  or  six  inches  high.  It  has  a 
strong  smell  of  lemons,  which  gives  it  its  common  name, 
and  is  preferred  for  some  dishes. 

Culture. — Thyme  is  raised  by  seed,  cuttings,  and 
dividing  the  roots.  A  light,  dry  soil  is  suitable.  The  root 
slips  may  be  set  out  in  rows  six  inches  apart  each  way. 
The  seeds  are  very  small,  and  should  be  sown  in  moist 
weather  in  spring,  the  soil  for  their  reception  made  very 
fine,  and  the  seed  raked  in  lightly  with  the  back  of  the 
rake.  Press  the  surface  gently  with  a  board  or  the  back 
of  a  spade.  Make  the  drills  six  inches  apart  and  very 
shallow.  AVater  lightly  in  hot,  dry  weather,  both  before 
and  after  the  plants  are  up.  Let  them  remain  in  the  drills 
or  transplant  when  two  or  three  inches  high.  Thin  the 
plants  to  six  inches  apart,  and  keep  free  from  weeds 
while  the  plants  are  small. 

Thyme  is  often  used  as  an  edging.  A  very  small  plot 
is  enough  for  any  family. 

For  Seed. — It  bears  seed  abundantly,  if  permitted.  The 
spikes  should  be  gathered  as  the  plant  ripens,  before  it 
is  washed  out  by  the  rain.  Dry  upon  a  cloth  in  the  shade. 

Use. — The  young  leaves  and  tops  are  used  in  soups, 
stuffings,  and  sauces.  They  can  be  dried  and  preserved 
like  other  herbs;  but  in  mild  climates  this  is  unnecessary, 
as  it  is  evergreen. 

TOMATO. — (Lyeopersicum  esculentum.) 

The  Tomato  is  a  tender  annual,  a  native  of  South 
America,  and  some  say  of  Mexico,  and  of  the  same 
natural  family  with  the  eggplant  and  Irish  potato.     It 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE. 


433 


was  introduced  into  England  in  1590,  and  was  long'  cul- 
tivated in  the  flower  garden  for  its  beautiful  red  and 
yellow  fruit,  which  was  not  used  for  food,  but  by  many 
considered  poisonous.  "As  an  esculent  plant,  in  1828-'9," 
says  Buist,  speaking  of  its  use  in  this  country,  "  it  was 


Fig.  149— Atlantic  Prize  Tomato. 

almost  detested;  in  ten  years  more  every  variety  of  pill 
and  panacea  was  '  extract  of  tomato.'  "  It  is  now  one 
of  the  most  popular  vegetables  in  cultivation,  and  springs 
up  self-sown  in  all  our  gardens.  There  are  many  varie- 
ties. The  following  are  among  the  best:  Atlantic  Prize, 
Acme,  Beauty,  Buckeye  State,  Chemin  Market,  Cardinal, 
Dw^arf  Champion,  Early  Ruby,  Fordhook  First,  Golden 

28 


434  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Queen,  Henderson's  Ponderosa,  Ignotum,  Lemon  Blush, 
Livingston's  Beauty,  Livingston's  Favorite,  Matchless, 
Green  Gage,  Mikado,  Volunteer,  Moore's,  New  Peach, 
Paragon,  Perfection. 

A  few  specially  desirable  varieties  for  general  use  may 
be  mentioned  as  follows:  Early  liuby,  Livingston's 
Beauty,  Lemon  Blush,  Atlantic  Prize,  Ignotum,  and 
Ponderosa. 

The  tomato  likes  a  light,  loamy  soil,  of  moderate  fer- 
tility, as  in  a  soil  too  rich  it  runs  to  vine,  and  the  fruit 
ripens  late.  For  the  early  crop,  sow  at  the  first  indica- 
tions of  spring,  some  six  weeks  before  corn-planting  time 
(early  in  February  here  and  at  the  North  in  March)  in  a 
hot-bed,  or  in  boxes  in  the  house. 

Sow  in  drills  eight  inches  apart,  and  when  the  plants 
come  up,  thin  to  two  or  three  inches,  and  transplant  into 
the  open  ground  when  the  frosts  are  over.  While  in  the 
seed-bed  give  air  at  all  times  when  there  is  no  danger  of 
frost.  It  is  better  to  sow  quite  early  and  transplant  when 
ready  into  small  pots,  and  a  couple  of  weeks  after,  when 
these  are  full  of  roots,  shift  them  into  five-inch  pots,  in 
which  they  may  be  kept  until  they  blossom,  if  a  late 
spring  or  apprehension  of  frost  renders  it  necessary. 
Transfer  them  with  the  ball  to  the  hill  in  the  open  ground 
in  a  cloudy,  damp  time,  in  fresh-dug  soil.  If  the  weather 
is  dry  they  may  be  planted,  the  fresh  soil  pressed  closely 
about  the  ball,  a  plentiful  watering  ghren,  finishing  with 
a  covering  of  light  soil  to  keep  the  ground  from  baking, 
and  shade  during  the  day  until  established.  Let  the  rows 
be  about  four  feet  apart  and  the  plants  three  feet  in  the 
row.  In  poor  soil  less  room  is  required  between  the  rows. 
As  they  are  very  tender,  do  not  plant  out  until  danger 
of  frost  is  over,  and  protect  them  by  large  flower  pots  or 
boxes,  if  there  is  any  fear  of  frost.  For  a  succession,  sow 
in  the  open  ground  about  corn-planting  time  in  a  rich, 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTUKE.  435 

sheltered  spot,  water  with  tepid  water  iii  dry  weather, 
shield  them  with  a  mat  or  box  in  cold  nights,  and  thin 
the  plants  while  young  to  three  inches,  and  carefully 
transplant  these,  when  ready,  with  a  trowel  and  ball, 
into  their  final  situation.  In  the  Gulf  States  another 
sowing  or  two  should  be  made,  to  keep  up  a  full  succes- 
sion in  the  long  summer. 

As  soon  as  the  lower  fruit  is  half  grown,  cut  off  the 
upper  part  of  the  plant  above  the  larger  fruit,  that  its 
growth  may  be  stopped,  and  the  fruit  below  will  be  larger 
and  several  days  earlier.  Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  fruit 
grows  within  eighteen  inches  of  the  ground,  but  a  large 
portion  of  the  vines  grow  above  that  height.  Tomatoes 
like  the  soil  about  them  well  hoed,  and  free  from  weeds. 
Plants  grown  in  the  open  air  are  more  abundant  in  bear- 
ing than  those  forwarded  under  glass.  In  well-trenched 
ground  they  will  continue  bearing  until  frost. 

To  Save  Seed. — Select  the  largest  early  fruit,  mash  with 
the  hand,  and  wash  the  seed  from  the  pulp;  spread  out 
upon  plates  and  dry  in  the  shade;  when  dry,  put  them  in 
paper  bags. 

Use, — Few  vegetables  are  prepared  in  as  many  differ- 
ent forms  as  the  tomato.  It  is  pickled  when  green,  and 
preserved  when  ripe;  it  is  eaten  raw  or  cooked;  it  enters 
into  soups  and  sauces,  and  is  prepared  in  catsups,  marma- 
lades, and  omelets.  The  French,  and  the  Italians,  near 
Rome  and  Naples,  raised  them  by  the  acre  long  before 
they  were  used  by  other  nations,  and,  it  is  said,  prepared 
them  in  an  almost  infinite  variety  of  ways.  There  are 
very  few  preparations  into  which  it  enters  which  are  not 
improved  by  the  addition.  A  good  supply  should  be  pre- 
pared when  in  season  by  stewing  and  putting  up  in 
patent  cans  for  winter  use.  On  account  of  the  acid  of  the 
fruit,  earthen  or  glass  jars  are  best. 


436  GARDEXIXG    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Marketing. — Tomatoes  are  skipped  in  bushel  crates, 
and  the  top  layer  is  carefully  faced.  Careful  sorting  of 
the  fruit  into  grades  depending  on  the  degree  of  ripeness 
is  required,  and  the  packing  must  be  done  by  laying  the 
tomatoes  in  the  crate  one  by  one  to  insure  quality  and 
neatness.  Some  of  the  most  successful  shippers  wrap 
each  tomato  in  soft  paper  before  packing. 

TURNIP.— ( Brassica  rapa.) 

The  Turnip  is  a  hardy  biennial  of  the  cabbage  tribe,  a 
native  of  many  parts  of  Europe,  and  has  been  cultivated 
for  centuries.  It  was  held  in  considerable  estimation  by 
the  Romans.  Cato  is  the  first  writer  that  mentions  it. 
"  Sow  it,"  says  he  "  after  an  autumnal  shower  in  a  place 
that  is  well  manured,  or  in  a  rich  soil."  Columella  recom- 
mends its  cultivation,  "because  that  portion  of  the  crop 
not  wished  for  the  table  will  be  greedily  eaten  by  the 
farm  cattle."  It  is  cultivated  in  all  temperate  climes,  and 
is  now  extensively  grown  as  a  field  crop  in  England,  for 
feeding  stock,  and  is  considerably  raised  for  the  same 
purpose  in  our  Northern  States. 

Extra  Early  Purple  Tor  Milan  is  one  of  the  earliest 
varieties;   flat  root,  and  smooth,  sweet  and  tender. 

Early  White  Dutch  (Strap-Leaved). — A  round,  flat 
turnip,  with  short,  narrow,  strap-like  leaves;  is  the 
earliest  kind. 

White  Globe  is  a  beautifully  shaped,  globular  root, 
of  the  largest  size,  a  standard  of  excellence. 

Early  White  Flat  Dutch. — An  early,  rapid  grower 
and  desirable  white  turnip.  The  roots  are  sweet  and 
juicy. 

Yellow  Aberdeen  is  very  hardy;  more  so  than  the 
foregoing.  Sweet,  fine-flavored,  and  very  nutritious.  It 
is  of  a  yellow  color,  round,  handsome  shape,  firm  and 
sweet,  and  keeps  well. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE. 


437 


Golden  Ball. — An  excellent  yellow  rooted  turnip; 
solid  and  good  flavor.    A  fine  table  variety. 

Ruta  Baga,  or  Swedes  Turnip  is  a  different  variety 
(Brassica  campestris,  car.  ruta  baga),  of  which  the  foliage 
differs  from  those  preceding  in  being  smooth  and  covered 
with  glaucous  bloom.  There  are  several  varieties,  all 
hardy  and  good. 

Purple-Topped  Swede. — The  roots  are  very  large,  of 
an  oval,  tapering  form,  and  the  greater  their  size  the 
sweeter  and  more  nourishing 
they  become.  It  keeps  until 
spring. 

Skirting's  Improved  Swede. 
This  is  of  still  better  form  than 


large,  less  smooth,  and  free  from 
bloom;  flesh  fine,  yellow,  and 
very  nutritious. 

Sweet  German  Turnip. — 
Called  also  White  Ruta  Baga 
and  Cabbage  Turnip  (Brassica 
campestris  Napa  Brassica,  D.  C), 
resembles  the  last  two,  but  the  flesh  is  white,  very  sweet, 
with  somewhat  of  the  cabbage  flavor,  and  is  a  good 
keeper.    Roots  large,  but  not  as  regular  as  the  preceding. 

A  good  fertilizer,  at  the  rate  of  1,000  pounds  per  acre, 
is  furnished  by  the  following  formula: 


Fig.  150 — Sweet  German 
Turnip. 


Cotton  seed  meal, 
Nitrate  of  soda, 
Acid  phosphate, 
Muriate  potash, 


450  pounds. 
250  pounds. 
900  pounds. 
300  pounds. 


For  the  spring  crop  manures  rich  in  ammonia  are  essen- 
tial, but  for  the  autumn  crop  the  superphosphate  of  lime 
seems  to  act  more  beneficially  than  any  other  application. 


438  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Culture. — The  turnip  likes  a  rich,  sandy  soil.  If  raised 
on  ground  manured  by  cow-penning,  the  crop  rarely  fails, 
as  the  urine  deposited  in  the  soil  affords  the  phosphates 
so  necessary  for  this  crop,  and  in  such  places  it  is  far  less 
infested  with  insects.  Soil  fresh  from  the  woods  also  suits 
it.  For  the  early  crop  seed  grown  north  of  the  locality 
in  which  it  is  sown  is  generally  preferred,  but  for  the 
main  crop,  pure  seed  from  handsomely  shaped  roots  of 
home  growth  is  sufficiently  good.  In  the  more  Southern 
States  sow  early  turnips  late  in  January,  or  through 
February,  and  farther  North  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in 
a  suitable  condition,  and  the  danger  of  its  becoming  again 
frozen  is  over;  that  is,  when  the  atmosphere  begins  to 
feel  like  spring.  Sow  in  drills  fifteen  inches  apart,  in  fine, 
light,  well-manured  soil,  in  drills  one  inch  deep,  covering 
the  seeds  half  an  inch  with  fine  soil  pressed  thereon. 
Keep  the  soil  free  from  weeds.  As  soon  as  the  plants  get 
a  little  strong,  thin  out  to  two  inches,  and  finally  to  six 
inches  in  the  row.  If  the  ground  is  not  kept  light  and 
well  worked,  and  the  plants  properly  thinned,  it  is  a  mere 
waste  of  time  and  seed.  The  Early  White  Dutch  and 
Early  Milan  are  the  kinds  to  be  preferred.  They  do  much 
better  in  drills  than  broadcast. 

For  fall  turnips,  sow  the  Early  White  Dutch,  etc.,  any 
time  in  August  and  September,  broadcast,  or  better  in 
drills,  as  directed  above.  If  broadcast,  thin  them  to 
about  twelve  inches  apart  or  more.  If  sown  just  before  a 
rain,  they  will  come  up  at  once.  Soot,  wood  ashes,  and 
unslaked  lime  are  all  useful  to  promote  growth  and  drive 
away  insects.  The  last  of  July  or  the  first  of  August  is 
the  time  for  sowing  the  main  crop  of  common  turnips, 
while  in  Georgia  the  last  sowing  for  greens  is  made  the 
first  of  November. 

The  varieties  of  the  Ruta  Baga  and  the  Sweet  German 
are  the  best  when  planted  for  late  winter  use.   These  are 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  439 

sown  at  New  York  the  last  half  of  June,  or  early  in  July; 
in  Georgia  from  the  1st  to  20th  of  August.  Sow  in  very 
rich,  fresh-prepared  soil.  Let  the  drills  be  two  feet  apart, 
and  thin  the  plants  by  degrees  until  twelve  or  fifteen 
inches  in  the  row.  As  soon  as  the  plants  appear,  loosen 
the  earth  about  them.  It  requires  a  richer  soil  than  the 
other  varieties.  Fill  any  vacancies  in  the  row  by  trans- 
planting; these  plants  will  make  nearly  as  large  roots 
as  the  others.  Keep  the  soil  light  and  mellow  by  the  use 
of  the  hoe.  Large  crops  can  be  tended  with  the  plow 
and  cultivator  to  great  advantage.  In  good  soil  the  yield 
is  immense.  The  crop  may  be  drawn  as  needed.  Some 
should  be  taken  before  they  begin  to  grow  up  to  seed  and 
stored  in  a  cool  place  for  late  keeping. 

To  Save  Seed. — Select  a  few  of  the  best  roots,  shorten 
the  tap-root,  and  plant  them  two  feet  apart.  Tie  the 
stalks  to  stakes,  and  keep  them  at  a  distance  from  all 
other  members  of  the  cabbage  tribe.  Seed  of  the  turnip 
should  be  changed  every  few  years,  as  the  plant  degene- 
rates.   It  keeps  three  years. 

Use. — This  is  one  of  those  useful  vegetables  that  can  be 
enjoyed  with  everything.  The  tops  gathered  in  winter 
and  spring  make  the  greens  much  prized  by  us  all  in 
early  spring.  The  roots  are  wholesome,  though  they  dis- 
agree with  some  stomachs.  They  are  considerably  nutri- 
tious also;  four  ounces  of  White  Dutch  containing  eighty- 
five  grains  of  nutritive  matter,  and  four  ounces  of  Ruta 
Baga  containing  one  hundred  and  ten  grains  of  the  same. 
Any  over-supply  of  this  crop  may  be  fed  with  great  advan- 
take  to  cows  and  swine. 

Marketing. — When  the  turnip  first  comes  into  market 
it  is  shipped  with  the  tops  on,  because  these  tops  are 
often  used  for  greens,  but  later  in  the  season  the  turnips 
are  shipped  in  barrels  like  potatoes,  with  the  tops  cut  off. 


440  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

WATER  CRESS.— (Nasturtium  officinale.) 

This  is  a  hardy,  perennial,  English,  Cruciferous  plant, 
growing  in  running  streams.  There  is  but  one  variety 
in  use. 

The  Water-Cress  likes  a  clear,  cool,  running  stream, 
fresh  issuing  from  a  spring,  the  nearer  its  source  the  bet- 
ter, with  the  water  about  an  inch  and  a  half  deep,  with 
a  sandy  or  gravelly  bottom.  It  must,  of  course,  at  first 
be  raised  from  seed,  which  can  be  sprinkled  at  the  source 
of  some  gravelly  stream.  If  once  established,  it  wTill  soon 
propagate  from  self-sown  seed.  If  the  stems  get  choked 
with  mud  and  weeds  they  must  be  taken  up  and  the 
beds  cleared  and  replanted.  The  shoots  ought  always  to 
be  cut,  as  breaking  injures  the  plants. 

They  grow  best  in  water  not  over  two  or  three  inches 
deep,  and  if  plants  can  be  got,  should  be  set  in  rows 
parallel  with  the  stream,  eighteen  inches  apart. 

Use. — Water-cresses  are  generally  liked  for  their  warm, 
pungent  taste,  and  are  used  alone  or  in  mixed  salads. 

WATERMELON.— ( ( 'itrullus    vulgaris.) 

This  is  a  trailing  annual,  a  native  of  the  tropics,  and  of 
the  same  natural  family  as  the  cucumber  and  musk- 
melon,  but  belongs  to  a  distinct  genus.  It  is  a  large,  suc- 
culent, and  refreshing,  but  not  high-flavored  fruit,  and  is 
probably  the  melon  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The  varie- 
ties are  numerous,  many  of  them  not  being  known  out  of 
a  limited  locality.    The  following  are  general  favorites: 

Boss. — A  melon  with  a  thin  dark  rind.  A  good  shipper. 
The  flesh  is  deep  red  and  fine  flavor.  Oblong  shape.  This 
is  an  early  melon  and  very  productive. 

Arkansas  Traveller. — This  was  introduced  by  Lan- 
dreth,  and  has  been  recommended  by  some  of  the  experi- 
ment stations  as  a  superior  melon.     "Rind  dark  green 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTUEE.  441 

with  wavy  stripes  of  black,  the  edible  portions  extending 
within  half  inch  of  skin;  flesh  brilliant  red,  sweet  and 
tender;  very  juicy." 

Dixie. — A  cross  from  the  Mountain  Sweet  on  the  Kolb 
Gem.    Ripens  earlier  than  Kolb  Gem. 

Florida  Favorite. — This  is  pronounced  to  be  by 
many  one  of  the  best  melons  on  the  market.  The  flesh  is 
red  and  fine  flavored. 

The  Jones. — This  and  the  Kolb  Gem  are  shaped  alike. 
The  flesh  is  red  and  remarkably  sweet.    The  melon  grows 


Fig.  151— Mclver's  Watermelon. 

to  a  large  size.  Some  of  the  experiment  stations  place 
this  variety  at  the  head  of  the  list. 

Kolb  Gem. — This  melon  originated  near  Eufaula, 
Alabama,  and  is  named  after  Captain  R.  F.  Kolb,  its 
originator,  one  of  the  prominent  citizens  of  that  State.  It 
has  been  largely  grown  for  shipment  North  because  of  its 
tough  rind  and  firm,  bright  red  flesh. 

Rattlesnake.— This  fruit  is  an  old  variety,  well 
known  in  Georgia  and  other  sections  of  the  South.  Ob- 
long form  and  when  fully  developed,  possesses  fine  quali- 
ties in  flavor.     It  is  not  a  good  shipping  melon. 

McIver    Sugar    Melon. — A    variety    originating    in 


442  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

South  Carolina,  raised  by  Colonel  E.  R.  Mclver,  of  Dar- 


Fig.  152— Dixie  Watermelon, 
lington,  and  mentioned  by  the  North  Carolina  Experi- 
ment Station  as  standing  next  to  the  Jones  in  quality. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  443 

The  following  are  also  classed  as  superior  melons  by 
experimenters:  Lone  Star,  Pride  of  Georgia,  Scaly 
Bark,  Sugar  Loaf. 

See  spraying  calendar  for  remedies  against  diseases. 

Culture. — The  watermelon  likes  a  deep,  rich,  sandy 
soil.  Where  this  plant  is  most  successfully  cultivated,  it 
always  grows  upon  sand.  The  hills  should  be  not  less 
than  teu  or  twelve  feet  apart  in  warm  climates,  and  seven 
or  eight  at  the  North.  Do  not  plant  until  the  ground  is 
warm,  and  cultivate  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
muskmelon  and  cucumber.  It  should  not  be  grown 
within  one  hundred  feet  of  other  melons,  gourds,  etc.,  if 
you  would  gather  pure  seed.  Protect  from  insects  as 
directed  in  the  article,  Cucumber.  The  melon  worm  does 
not  annoy  the  watermelon. 

Use. — This  is  a  wholesome  fruit,  very  popular  in  sum- 
mer from  its  beauty  and  the  refreshing  coolness  of  its 
juice.  It  is  not  very  nutritious,  as  it  contains  ninety-five 
per  cent,  of  water.  It  is  not  by  any  means  as  nourishing 
as  the  muskmelon,  and  lacks  its  peculiar  rich  flavor.  The 
outer  rind  is  used  for  preserves.  In  many  parts  of  Europe 
the  juice  is  boiled  into  a  pleasant  syrup,  or  made  into 
beer. 

Marketing.— This  is  done  in  box-cars  which  are  well 
ventilated.  The  smaller  melons  are  placed  on  the  bottom 
and  the  larger  at  the  top.  The  smaller  will  stand  pres- 
sure better.  Pack  securely  to  prevent  the  melons  from 
moving  about  during  transit. 


HERBS  FOR  MEDICINAL  PURPOSES. 

A  few  roots  of  the  most  useful  of  these  should  be  found 
in  every  garden.  The  medicinal  properties  of  many  of 
them  depend  upon  their  aromatic  qualities,  and  they  are 
never  so  fragrant  and  full  of  virtue  when  grown  upon 


444  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

ground  highly  manured.  Chamomile,  lavender,  rose- 
mary, rue,  wormwood,  and  many  others  lose  much  of 
their  strength  when  forced  into  rank  growth.  Common 
garden  soil,  without  manuring,  is  quite  good  enough. 
Whenever  the  plants  begin  to  decline,  take  away  the  old 
surface  soil,  and  apply  fresh,  or  set  out  new  plants  in 
fresh  ground 

Medicinal,  pot,  or  sweet  herbs,  as  a  general  rule,  should 
be  gathered  when  in  bloom,  and  dried  carefully  and  thor- 
oughly in  the  shade.  When  thoroughly  dry,  press  them 
closely  into  paper  bags,  or  powder  them  finely;  sift,  and 
keep  in  closely-stopped  bottles. 

Angelica  (Archangelica  officinalis)  is  an  Umbelliferous 
biennial  plant,  growing  from  three  to  five  feet  high,  and 
a  native  of  many  parts  of  Northern  Europe.  The  whole 
plant  is  powerfully  aromatic.  Its  roots  have  a  fragrant, 
agreeable  odor,  and  at  first  a  sweetish  taste,  which  soon 
turns  acrid  in  the  mouth.  Its  medical  properties  are 
aromatic,  stimulant,  and  gently  tonic. 

Its  stalks  were  formerly  blanched  and  eaten  like 
celery,  but  it  is  mostly  cultivated  to  make  a  sweetmeat 
from  them  when  young  and  tender.  They  are  also  can- 
died by  the  confectioners. 

Sow  the  seed  one  foot  apart  in  August  or  September, 
and  when  they  get  about  four  inches  high,  the  next 
spring,  set  them  in  rows  two  feet  apart  each  way.  Though 
the  plant  is  only  a  biennial,  yet  by  cutting  down  the  seed- 
stalk  whenever  it  rises,  the  same  plant  may  be  preserved 
several  seasons.  Angelica  likes  a  moist,  cool  soil,  such 
as  the  banks  of  ditches. 

Anise  (Pimpinella  dnisum)  is  an  Umbelliferous  annual, 
a  native  of  Egypt.  It  is  cultivated  for  its  seeds,  and  its 
leaves,  which  are  occasionally  used  as  a  garnish,  and  for 
seasoning  like  fennel.    The  seeds  have  a  fragrant,  agree- 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE 


445 


able  smell,  and  a  sweetish,  pleasant  taste.    They  are  use- 
ful wherever  an  aromatic  stimulant  is  required. 

The  plant  grows 
about  eighteen  inches 
high.  Sow  the  seed 
where  it  is  to  stand  in 
spring,  in  a  dry,  light 
soil,  and  thin  out  the 
plants,  if  too  thick,  to 
three  or  four  inches 
apart. 

Balm  (Melissa  offici- 
nalis) is  a  hardy,  La- 
biate -  flowered  peren- 
nial, native  of  Switzer- 
land and  the  south  of 
France,  but  has  long 
been  cultivated  in  gar- 
dens. It  has  an  aro- 
matic taste,  and  a 
grateful,  fragrant 
smell,  a  little  like 
lemons. 

It  is  a  square-stem- 
med plant,  rising  about 
two  feet  high.  It  is 
used  in  making  balm 
tea,  a  grateful  drink  in 
fevers,  and  for  forming 
a  pleasant  beverage 
called  balm  wine.  It  is 
a  great  favorite  with 
the  bees. 

Any  garden  soil  will  do  for  balm.     It  is  readily  pro- 
pagated  either   by   slips,    or   by   parting   the   roots   in 


Fig.  153- Bene. 


446  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

spring.  Plant  ten  inches  apart,  giving  water  if  dry 
weather. 

Bene  (Sesamum  orientate)  is  an  annual  plant,  and  a 
native  of  Africa  and  India.  Introduced  into  this  coun- 
try by  the  negroes.  It  grows  from  three  to  six  feet  high, 
bearing  numerous  pods,  filled  with  smallish  seed.  These 
are  used  for  food  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  are  also 
cultivated  for  the  oil  with  which  they  abound.  The  oil 
resembles  that  of  olives,  and  is  nearly  as  good.  The  leaves 
abound  in  mucilage;  one  or  two  stirred  in  a  half  pint  of 
water  will  form  a  bland  mucilaginous  drink  very  useful 
in  cholera  infantum,  dysentery,  and  summer  complaints 
generally.  The  leaves  should  be  freshly  gathered,  and 
enough  may  be  added  to  make  the  water  ropy  without 
affecting  its  color  or  taste. 

Sow  a  row  in  spring,  on  the  edge  of  a  plot  or  border, 
and  thin  out  as  the  plants  require  room.  A  few  plants 
will  furnish  all  the  leaves  desired. 

Boneset,  or  Thoroughwort  (Eupatorium  perfoliatum), 
is  a  Composite-flowered  perennial,  a  native  of  most  of  the 
United  States,  which,  if  not  found  growing  wild  in  the 
vicinity,  should  be  cultivated,  as  it  is  one  of  the  best 
herbs  in  family  practice.  It  has  a  faint  odor,  an  intensely 
bitter  taste,  and  is  slightly  astringent.  Its  medicinal 
virtues  are  diaphoretic,  tonic,  and  in  larger  doses,  emetic 
and  aperient.  It  is  principally  used  as  a  diaphoretic  in 
colds,  catarrhs,  and  rheumatism,  in  intermittent,  remit- 
tent and  inflammatory  diseases,  or  given  cold  as  a  tonic 
in  dyspepsia. 

Boneset  can  be  raised  by  transplanting  the  roots  or 
sowing  the  seed  in  spring. 

Borage  (Borago  officinalis)  is  an  annual  European 
plant.  The  tender  tops,  young  leaves,  and  flowers  are 
sometimes  used  as  a  salad  by  the  French,  and  boiled  by 
the  Italians. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  447 

Medicinally  it  was  formerly  thought  endowed  with 
very  great  virtues,  and  numbered  among  the  four  cordial 
flowers. 

Old  Gerard  says:  "  Those  of  our  time  do  use  the  flowers 
in  salads,  and  to  exhilarate  and  to  make  the  minde  glad. 
There  be  many  things  made  of  them  used  for  the  comfort 
of  the  heart,  to  drive  away  sorrow  and  increase  the  joy 
of  the  minde."  The  plant  is  not  much  used  now  except 
as  an  ingredient  in  the  drink  called  "  a  cool  tankard," 
made  of  wine,  water,  lemon-juice,  and  sugar,  to  which  a 
few  of  the  tender  leaves  seem  to  give  additional  coolness. 

SowT  early  in  spring,  broadcast,  and  a  little  thinning 
and  weeding  is  all  the  attention  that  will  be  needed. 

Caraway  (Canon  Card)  is  a  native  of  England  and 
various  other  countries  of  Europe.  It  is  a  biennial,  Um- 
belliferous plant,  wTell  known  to  the  ancients.  Pliny  men- 
tions it.  Caraway  is  cultivated  for  its  aromatic  seeds, 
which  are  useful  in  confectionery,  as  in  cakes,  comfits, 
etc.,  and  the  leaves  are  sometimes  used  in  soups.  The 
roots  are  said  to  excel  those  of  the  parsnip,  being  for- 
merly cooked  and  used  in  the  same  manner.  Medicinally 
the  seeds  are  used  in  an  infusion  for  flatulence.  Sow  in 
autumn,  or  early  spring,  and  thin  so  as  to  give  each  plant 
ten  inches  of  room.  Keep  free  from  wTeeds.  Plants  sown 
in  autumn  wTill  give  seed  the  next  season. 

Chamomile  (Anthemis  nobilis)  is  a  hardy,  Composite- 
flowered  perennial,  a  native  of  England,  cultivated  for  its 
flowers,  which  have  a  bitter,  aromatic  taste,  and  are  in 
small  doses  a  useful  tonic,  but  given  largely,  act  as  an 
emetic.  An  infusion  of  them  improves  digestion  and 
gives  tone  to  the  disordered  stomach.  The  flowers  are 
sometimes  chewed  as  a  substitute  for  tobacco. 

It  is  best  propagated  by  dividing  the  roots  in  spring. 
Keep  the  ground  free  from  weeds.  Plant  nine  inches 
apart.    As  to  varieties,  the  single-flowered  has  the  most 


448  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

virtue,  but  the  double-flowered  is  most  cultivated,  from 
its  greater  productiveness. 

Clary  (Salvia  sclarea)  is  a  Labiate-flowered  biennial 
from  Italy.  The  leaves  of  this  plant  were  formerly  used 
in  soups,  and  its  flowers  are  now  made  use  of  in  a  fer- 
mented wine. 

The  medicinal  virtues  of  the  plant  are  cordial  and  as- 
tringent, and  it  is  used  either  in  its  fresh  or  dried  state. 
For  propagation  and  culture,  see  Sage,  which  belongs 
to  the  same  genus.  Clary,  however,  must  be  yearly  re- 
newed by  fresh  sowing.  Thin  the  plants  to  fifteen  inches 
apart  each  way. 

Coriander  (Coriandrum  sativum)  is  an  Umbelliferous 
annual  from  the  East,  and  also  grows  naturally  in  the 
south  of  Europe.  Some  like  its  tender  leaves  for  soups 
and  salads,  but  it  is  raised  mostly  for  its  seeds,  which 
have  a  pleasant  aromatic  taste,  though  the  smell  is  dis- 
agreeable. Coriander  seed  is  carminative  and  stomachic. 
It  is  often  used  to  disguise  the  taste  of  medicines,  but  it 
is  principally  employed  in  confectionery. 

Sow  the  seed  in  spring  or  autumn,  where  they  are  to 
remain,  in  drills  twelve  inches  apart.  Thin  the  plants  to 
four  inches,  and  keep  free  from  weeds. 

Dill  (Anethum  graveolens)  belongs  to  the  same  genus 
with  Fennel,  and  is  a  biennial,  Umbelliferous  plant,  a 
native  of  Southern  Europe,  cultivated  for  its  seeds,  which 
have  an  aromatic  odor,  and  a  warm,  pungent  and  some- 
what bitter  taste.  Medicinally,  they  are  good  for  flatu- 
lence and  colic  in  infants.  The  leaves  are  sometimes  used 
for  culinary  purposes,  and  the  seeds  are  occasionally 
added  to  pickled  cucumbers  to  heighten  the  flavor. 

Sow  the  seeds  either  early  in  the  spring,  or  soon  after 
they  are  ripe,  in  a  light  soil.  Thin,  if  crowded,  and  keep 
clean.     The  plants  should  be  eight  inches  apart. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  449 

Elecampane  {Inula  Eelenium)  is  a  native  of  England 
and  Japan.  It  is  a  Composite-flowered,  perennial  plant, 
cultivated  for  its  thick,  fleshy,  carrot-like  root,  which  is 
useful  as  an  aromatic  tonic  and  expectorant.  Cut  up  fine 
and  fed  with  their  corn,  the  root  is  a  great  relief  to  the 
distemper  in  horses. 

It  is  propagated  by  offsets,  or  by  parting  the  roots  in 
autumn  or  spring,  but  may  also  be  grown  from  seeds 
sown  in  the  fall.  It  likes  a  moist  soil,  and  the  plants 
should  be  fifteen  inches  apart. 

Fennel  (Foeniculum  vulgare)  is  a  hardy,  aromatic,  per- 
ennial, Umbelliferous  plant  from  the  south  of  Europe, 
growing  wild  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  perhaps  quite  as 
properly  belongs  to  the  culinary  as  to  the  medicinal  de- 
partment of  the  garden.  It  has  a  finely  divided  leaf,  and 
tall,  umbel-bearing  stems,  crowned  with  small  yellow 
flowers. 

Culture. — Fennel  will  grow  in  almost  any  soil.  It  is 
propagated  by  offsets,  parting  the  roots,  or  by  seed;  all 
which  modes  may  be  successfully  practiced  at  any  time 
in  autumn  or  spring. 

The  best  season,  however,  for  sowing  the  seed  is  when 
it  ripens  in  the  fall.  The  seed  may  be  sown  moderately 
thick  in  drills  (which  should  be  twelve  inches  apart) 
about  half  an  inch  deep,  and  the  earth  pressed  upon  them. 
When  the  young  plants  are  four  or  five  inches  high,  thin 
them  out  to  twelve  inches.  Those  taken  up  may  be 
planted  out  to  enlarge  the  bed.  Water  them  freely,  if 
the  weather  is  dry.  Keep  the  plants  free  from  wTeeds, 
which  is  all  the  cultivation  required.  If  the  seed  is  not 
desired,  the  stems  should  be  cut  down  as  often  as  they 
run  up;  for  if  allowed  to  ripen  seed,  the  old  plants  will 
last  but  a  few  years.  But  this  is  of  little  consequence,  as 
plenty  of  self-grown  seedlings  will  be  ready  to  take  their 
place.    Eight  or  ten  roots  are  enough  for  any  family.    It 

29 


450  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

should  be  kept  within  proper  limits,  as  it  is  much  inclined 
to  spread. 

Use. — Fennel  is  a  good  deal  used  in  continental  Europe 
in  soups,  fish-sauces,  garnishes,  and  salads.  It  is  also  con- 
siderably used  in  England,  but  less  with  us.  The  Italians 
blanch  and  eat  the  stalks  of  one  variety  called  Finochie, 
like  celery.  A  little  fennel  seed  sometimes  gives  an  agree- 
able variety  in  flavoring  apple-sauce  and  pies.  But  it  is 
most  used  medicinally.  The  seeds  are  carminative  and 
stimulant,  and  in  an  infusion  are  excellent  for  the  flatu- 
lent colic  of  infants. 

Horehouxi)  (MarruUum  vulgare)  is  a  hardy,  Labiate- 
flowered,  perennial  plant,  a  native  of  most  parts  of 
Europe,  growing  in  waste  grounds,  among  rubbish,  in 
warm,  dry  situations.  It  has  a  strong  aromatic  smell, 
and  a  bitter,  pungent  taste,  which  is  permanent  in  the 
mouth;  medicinally,  horehound  is  a  tonic,  somewhat 
stimulant  and  diuretic,  and,  in  large  doses,  laxative.  It 
enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  cough  syrups  and 
lozenges. 

Sow  the  seeds  in  the  spring  in  any  common  soil.  It 
scarcely  needs  any  attention.  It  may  also  be  propagated 
by  dividing  the  roots.   Plant  eighteen  inches  apart. 

Hyssop  (Hyssopus  officinalis)  is  a  Labiate-flowered, 
hardy,  evergreen  undershrub,  from  the  south  of  Europe, 
of  which  the  leaves  and  flower-spikes  are  the  parts  used 
medicinally.  It  has  an  aromatic  odor,  and  a  warm,  pun- 
gent taste.    It  is  stimulant  and  expectorant. 

Hyssop  is  propagated  by  slips,  or  dividing  the  roots,  or 
by  sowing  the  seed  in  the  spring.  Transplant  the  young- 
plants  to  where  they  are  to  remain,  or  you  may  thin  them 
to  six  inches  apart,  and  leave  them  in  the  seed-bed  until 
autumn  before  transplanting.  It  likes  a  dry,  sandy  soil, 
and  about  eighteen  inches  space  should  be  given  to  each 
plant. 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  451 

Lavender  (Lavandula  vera)  is  a  Labiate-flowered 
undershrub,  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  hardy 
south  of  New  York.  It  is  cultivated  for  its  fragrant 
spikes  of  flowers,  which  are  used  for  the  distillation  of 
lavender-water.  Being  dried,  and  put  up  in  paper  bags, 
they  are  also  used  to  perfume  linen.  Both  flowers  and 
leaves  are  very  aromatic.  It  has  an  agreeable  pungent 
bitterness  to  the  taste,  and  its  medicinal  properties  are 
stimulant,  cordial,  and  stomachic.  There  are  three  varie- 
ties— the  narrow-leaved,  one  sort  with  blue  and  the  other 
with  white  flowers,  and  the  broad-leaved  lavender. 

Lavender  may  be  propagated  by  seeds,  slips,  or  cut- 
tings. Sow  the  seed  in  drills  ten  inches  apart,  in  spring, 
and  transplant  the  next  spring  to  a  dry  soil  of  but 
medium  richness,  and  it  will  be  more  highly  aromatic. 
Give  each  plant  about  two  feet  of  space;  for  drying, 
gather  the  flowers  before  they  begin  to  turn  brown  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  spike. 

Liquorice  (GlyeyrrJiiza  glabra)  is  a  Leguminous,  hardy 
perennial  from  Southern  Europe,  the  saccharine  juice  of 
the  fleshy  root  of  which  is  useful  in  catarrhs,  fevers,  etc. 
Its  taste  is  sweet  and  mucilaginous,  and  it  is  much  used 
as  a  demulcent,  either  alone  or  combined  with  other 
substances. 

A  few  roots  of  this  plant,  when  once  started,  will  be  of 
very  little  trouble  in  the  garden.  The  plant  is  propagated 
early  in  spring  by  cuttings  of  the  roots.  Dig  the  soil  at 
least  two  feet  deep.  Take  the  horizontal  roots  of  estab- 
lished plants,  five  or  six  inches  long.  Every  shoot  planted 
should  have  at  least  two  eyes;  make  the  rows  three  feet 
apart,  and  the  plant  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  in  the  row, 
and  cover  the  roots  well  with  mould.  Onions,,  lettuce,  or 
radishes  may  be  grown  between  the  rows  the  first  year; 
afterwards  keep  the  soil  free  from  weeds,  dress  the  sur- 
face with  manure  every  autumn,  and  at  the  end  of  the 


452  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

third  year  take  up  the  crop  as  soon  as  the  leaves  are  fully 
decayed,  and  dry  the  roots  thoroughly.  In  shallow  or 
poor  ground,  it  will  not  succeed. 

Mint  (Mentha). — Three  species  of  this  genus  of  Labiate 
plants  are  cultivated,  all  hardy  perennials,  natives  of 
Britain. 

Spearmint  (Mentha  vifidis)  belongs  rather  to  the  culi- 
nary than  the  medicinal  department  of  the  garden.  It  is 
employed  in  sauces  and  salads,  as  well  as  dried  for  soups 
in  winter.  A  few  sprigs  of  mint,  boiled  a  little  time  with 
them,  and  then  withdrawn,  are  thought  by  some  to  im- 
prove the  flavor  of  green  peas.  Its  is  also  used  in  pre- 
paring mint-julep.  Its  medicinal  properties  are  aromatic, 
stimulant,  and  stomachic.  The  leaves,  boiled  in  milk, 
are  useful  in  diarrhea.  Its  infusion  is  good  to  prevent 
nausea.  There  are  two  varieties — the  broad  and  narrow- 
leaved — equally  good. 

PErPERMiNT  (M.  piperita)  has  a  strong,  agreeable  odor, 
a  pungent,  aromatic  taste,  giving  a  sensation  of  coldness 
in  the  mouth.  Its  medical  properties  are  aromatic,  stimu- 
lant, and  stomachic.  The  essential  oil  and  essence  are 
the  forms  in  which  it  is  employed  in  medicine,  and  they 
are  also  largely  used  in  confectionery  and  cordials. 

Pennyroyal  (M.  Pukgium)  is  more  acrid  than  the 
other  mints,  and  its  taste  and  smell  are  less  agreeable.  It 
possesses  their  warm,  pungent  flavor,  and  other  general 
properties,  but  is  not  so  good  a  stomachic.  The  American 
pennyroyal  belongs  to  a  different  genus,  Hedeomd. 

All  these  species  require  a  tenacious  soil,  which  is  all 
the  better  if  moist,  or  even  wet. 

A  border  sheltered  from  the  midday  sun,  but  not  en- 
tirely secluded  from  its  influence,  is  always  to  be  allotted 
them,  as  in  such  a  situation  they  are  most  vigorous  and 
constant  in  production. 

They  are  readily  propagated  by  dividing  the  roots  in 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AXD    CULTURE.  453 

the  winter  or  spring,  or  by  cuttings  planted  in  moist  soil 
during  summer.  Plant  in  rows  nine  inches  apart  each 
way,  and  cover  the  roots  about  two  inches  deep.  In 
autumn  clean  off  the  old  stems,  and  add  two  inches  of 
mould  to  the  raked  surface.  Through  the  summer  remove 
grass  and  weeds.  Make  new  beds  every  three  or  four 
years. 

Rosemary  (Rosmarinus  officinalis)  is  a  Labiate-flowered, 
hardy,  evergreen  undershrub,  a  native  of  the  south  of 
Europe.  It  has  a  fragrant,  grateful  odor,  and  a  warm, 
aromatic,  bitter  taste.    Its  medicinal  virtues  are  tonic. 

It  was  formerly  believed  that  this  plant  gave  strength 
to  the  memory.  The  tender  tops  are  the  parts  used  in 
medicine. 

Rosemary  may  be  raised  from  seed,  or  by  planting  slips 
or  cuttings  in  the  spring  or  autumn.  Sow  the  seed  in 
drills  sixteen  inches  apart.  Transplant  the  next  spring 
or  autumn.    Two  or  three  plants  will  be  enough. 

Rue  (Ruta  graveolens)  is  a  perennial  evergreen  under- 
shrub of  the  Rue  family  from  the  south  of  Europe.  It 
flowers  all  summer,  and  is  very  well  known  from  its 
peculiar  strong,  unpleasant  smell.  Its  taste  is  bitter  and 
pungent,  and  the  leaves  so  acrid  as  to  blister  the  skin. 
It  is  a  very  powerful  medicinal  agent,  too  much  so  to  be 
generally  used  in  family  practice. 

Rue  is  propagated  by  seeds,  cuttings,  or  slips.  It  must 
not  have  a  very  rich  soil,  nor  be  suffered  to  run  to  seed. 
Sow  the  seed  and  cultivate  as  hyssop. 

Sage  (Salvia  officinalis)  is  a  Labiate-flowered,  hardy 
evergreen  undershrub,  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe. 
It  has  been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  times,  was 
classed  among  the  heroic  remedies,  and  considered  the 
best  of  medicines  for  prolonging  human  life.  An  old 
Latin  adage  is  "  Cur  moriatur  homo  cui  salvia  crescit  in 


454  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

liorto?  "  "  Why  should  a  man  die  while  sage  is  growing 
in  his  garden?  "  It  grows  about  two  feet  high,  with 
wrinkled  ashy  green  leaves,  and  terminal  blue  flowers 
in  long  spikes.  It  has  a  fragrant  smell  and  a  warm,  bit- 
terish aromatic  taste. 

Culture. — Sage  is  raised  from  seed,  slips,  or  cuttings. 
It  likes  a  dry,  fertile  soil.  How  the  seeds  on  a  gentle  hot- 
bed, or  in  the  open  ground  early  in  spring,  in  shallow 
drills,  eight  inches  apart.  Press  the  earth  upon  the  seed, 
covering  them  not  over  half  an  inch  deep.  Thin  the 
plants,  when  well  up,  to  half  a  foot  apart,  planting  those 
taken  up  at  a  similar  distance.  Keep  the  soil  light  and 
free  from  weeds.  In  the  autumn,  or  the  next  spring, 
plant  them  out  in  rows  eighteen  inches  each  way.  Layers 
and  rooted  offsets  may  be  set  out  at  once  at  this  distance. 
Cuttings  of  the  outward  shoots  of  the  current  year's 
growth,  planted  out  in  a  shady  border,  in  moist  weather, 
readily  take  root;  set  them  in  rows  six  inches  apart.  In 
autumn  or  spring,  take  them  carefully  up  and  set  them 
out  in  their  final  stations.  Trim  the  plants  to  a  round, 
bushy  head.  Gather  and  dry  the  leaves  for  winter  use, 
but  do  not  trim  the  plants  too  closely,  especially  in 
autumn  or  winter. 

Use. — The  leaves  are  used  for  seasoning  stuffings, 
sauces,  and  many  kinds  of  meat,  as  well  as  to  improve 
the  flavor  of  various  other  articles  of  cookery.  Medici- 
nally, its  infusion  is  given  warm  as  a  sudorific,  or  mingled 
with  vinegar  and  alum,  is  an  excellent  gargle  in  sore 
throat.  It  is  stated  by  Bomare  that  it  was  exported 
formerly  by  the  Dutch  to  China,  and  it  was  so  much  pre- 
ferred by  the  Chinese  to  their  own  tea,  that  they  will- 
ingly exchanged  two  boxes  of  it  for  one  of  sage. 

Southernwood  (Artemisia  Abrotanum)  is  a  hardy  ever- 
green, with  fragrant,  finely-divided  leaves,  nearly  allied 
to  wormwood,  both  being  species  of  the  same  genus,  and 


VEGETABLES DESCRIPTION    AND    CULTURE.  455 

similar  as  to  medical  properties.  Like  wormwood,  it  has 
a  grateful  odor,  but  it  is  uot  much  used  iu  medicine  from 
its  nauseous  taste, 
worth  cultivating; 

For  culture,  see  Hyssop. 

Tansy  {Tanacetum  vulgare)  is  a  hardy,  Composite- 
flowered  perennial,  a  native  of  Europe,  long  cultivated 
in  gardens.  It  was  formerly  used  to  give  flavor  to  pud- 
dings and  omelets. 

Its  medicinal  properties  are  tonic  and  stomachic.  It  is 
also  a  vermifuge.  It  was  formerly  of  very  general  use  in 
the  preparation  of  alcoholic  bitters. 

Divide  the  roots,  and  set  out  a  few  slips  in  autumn  or 
spring.  After  it  is  well  rooted,  be  careful  you  do  not  get 
too  much  of  it.  There  are  two  varieties — the  common 
and  the  curled. 

Wormwood  {Artemisia  Absinthium)  is  a  native  of 
Europe,  and  is  a  hardy,  Composite-flowered  perennial, 
cultivated  much  in  gardens.  Its  odor  is  strong  and  fra- 
grant, and  its  taste  aromatic,  but  intensely  bitter.  It  is 
cultivated  for  the  tops  or  extremities  of  the  branches.  Its 
properties  are  tonic  and  diuretic,  and  it  is  a  vermifuge. 

Wormwood  likes  a  calcareous  soil,  and  may  be  raised 
either  by  cuttings,  seeds,  or  dividing  the  roots.  Culti- 
vated same  as  hyssop,  the  roots  being  eighteen  inches 
apart.  A  dry,  poor  soil  is  necessary  to  bring  out  the 
peculiar  virtues  of  this  plant. 

Roman  Wormwood  (JL.  Poutica)  is  less  nauseous  than 
the  preceding,  and  generally  preferred. 


456  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

FRUITS — VARIETIES   AND    CULTURE. 
ALMOND. — (Amygdalus  comm  unis.) 

The  Almond  is  a  native  of  Asia  and  Northern  Africa. 
It  is  a  tree  of  medium  size,  nearly  allied  to  the  peach  in 
habit  and  general  appearance.  The  leaves  are  similar  to 
the  peach,  having  glands  like  some  varieties  of  the  latter 
fruit,  and  flowers  of  similar  shape,  but  much  larger  and 
more  ornamental,  varying  in  color  from  pure  white  to  a 
fine  blush.  The  chief  difference  is  in  the  fruit,  the  stone 
of  the  almond  being  flatter,  not  so  hard,  and  covered  with 
a  woolly  skin  that  opens  spontaneously  when  the  kernel 
is  ripe. 

In  Southern  Europe  the  almond  is  much  cultivated, 
and  large  quantities  of  nuts  exported.  The  kernel  is  the 
part  used;  the  sweet  varieties,  whether  green  or  dry,  form 
a  very  nutritious  article  of  food,  and  a  most  agreeable 
addition  to  the  dessert.  Almonds  are  used  in  confection- 
ery, cooking,  perfumery,  and  medicine.  The  bitter 
almond  is  the  kind  used  in  perfumery  and  flavoring;  it 
contains  prussic  acid,  which,  though  a  violent  poison,  is 
not  thought  injurious  in  the  small  quantities  required 
for  these  purposes. 

Cultivation. — A  warm,  dry  soil  is  most  suitable  for  the 
almond,  which  is  cultivated  exactly  like  the  peach,  and 
is  subject  to  the  same  diseases;  it  may  be  budded  on  the 
almond,  peach,  or  plum  stock.  The  almond  cannot  be 
successfully  cultivated  in  the  middle  or  northern  portions 
of  the  South.    The  varieties  are: 

Common  Almond. — Nuts  one  and  one-fourth  inch  long, 
hard,  smooth,  compressed,  and  pointed,  with  a  kernel  of 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND     CULTURE.  457 

agreeable  flavor.  The  hardiest  and  most  productive 
variety,  and  is  the  common  hard-shelled  almond  of  the 
shops;  flowers  open  before  the  leaves  appear. 

The  Princess  and  Sultana  are  varieties  extensively 
cultivated  in  Europe  and  produce  nuts  with  thin  shells. 
They  are  prolific  and  excellent  varieties.  Another  Euro- 
pean variety  is  Pistache,  which  yields  a  nut  of  a  delicate 
sweetness. 

THE  APPLE.— (Pyrus  Malus.) 

The  Apple  probably  originated  from  the  European 
Crab,  but  centuries  of  cultivation  and  reproduction  from 
seeds  of  new  and  improved  varieties  have  brought  it  to 
its  present  state  of  perfection  in  quality,  size  and  beauty. 

Where  the  apple  can  be  grown  and  preserved  in  perfec- 
tion, it  is  the  most  useful  of  fruits.  Varieties  can  be 
selected  which  will  afford  a  succession  through  the  entire 
year. 

They  can  be  thus  preserved  in  our  own  mountain 
region,  from  which  excellent  fruit  is  brought  as  late  as 
the  month  of  May.  The  best  varieties  are  excellent 
dessert  fruits.  For  the  table,  they  are  prepared  in  many 
ways,  as  baking,  stewing,  in  pies,  tarts,  puddings,  dump- 
lings, jellies,  and  preserves.  They  are  also  dried  for 
winter  use. 

The  best  mode  of  propagating  the  apple  is  by  budding 
or  grafting  on  seedling  stocks.  For  the  raising  of  stocks, 
the  seed  should  be  sown  in  the  fall,  or  early  winter,  in 
good  soil,  in  rows  eighteen  inches  apart.  Transplant  them 
in  rows  four  feet  apart,  and  one  foot  apart  in  the  row.  If 
any  of  the  plants  become  infested  with  woolly  aphis, 
wash  them  with  tobacco  water.  The  young  grafted  trees 
should  be  planted  in  the  orchard  when  one  or  two  years 
old,  at  distances  of  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  apart. 

Analysis  shows  that  one-half  the  ash  of  the  bark  of  the 
apple,  and  over  one-sixth  of  that  of  the  sap-wood,  is  lime. 


458  GAKDENING    FOK    THE    SOUTH. 

When  this  mineral  is  not  abundant  in  the  soil,  the  tree 
cannot  be  kept  healthy.  Swamp  muck  or  leaf  mould, 
composted  with  lime  and  bone-dust,  or  ashes,  are  the  best 
manures  for  the  apple  tree.  The  best  soil  for  the  apple, 
in  this  climate,  is  a  deep,  cool,  moist  loam;  a  northern,  or 
northwest  aspect,  is  preferable  to  any  other.  One  of  the 
greatest  difficulties  to  be  encountered  in  the  cultivation 
of  the  apple  is  the  sun-burning  of  the  trunk,  which  can 
be  prevented  by  training  the  trees  with  low  heads,  so  as 
to  shade  their  trunks  from  the  rays  of  the  sun. 


Fig.  154. 

By  shortening  in  the  branches  of  the  young  trees,  when 
transplanted  into  garden  or  orchard,  they  can  be  made  to 
put  out  branches  about  two  feet  from  the  ground,  which 
is  about  the  proper  height  to  form  a  good  top.  The  apple 
tree  needs  but  little  pruning;  removing  the  water-sprouts 
and  such  limbs  as  cross  each  other  is  about  all  that  is 
required. 

The  following  varieties  are  of  general  interest  and  are 
adapted  to  most  sections  of  the  South : 

Arkansas  (Black  Twig). — Good    average    size,  round 


FEUITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTURE.  45  9» 

oval,  with  a  glossy  surface  and  yellowish  red;  lighter 
colored  dots;  flesh  yellow  and  fine  grained;  flavor  mild, 
with  a  subacid  juicy  taste;  ripens  late.  Originated  in 
Arkansas.  Useful  for  marketing  and  kitchen  purposes. 
Baldwin. — Average  size,  oval  conical,  yellowish  red 
in  color;  mild  flavor,  with  rich  subacid  taste;  good  winter 
apple,  and  very  productive. 


Fig.  155. 

Ben  Davis. — Large,  round  and  yellow  striped;  flavor 
mild;  flesh  light  colored;  late  in  ripening;  good  for 
market  purposes. 

Bough. — Large  size;  oblate  in  form;  skin  bright  yel- 
low; thickly  dotted  with  russet  specks;  stalk  rather  long, 
in  a  deep,  narrow  cavity;  calyx  deeply  sunk;  flesh  white, 
juicy,  and  very  sweet;  tree  a  poor  grower. 

Byers,  Buckingham,  Batchelor. — This  very  popular 
apple  is  known  by  fifteen  or  twenty  names,  but  generally 
called  Buckingham.  Fruit  large  to  very  large;  a  little 
oblate  in  form,  narrowing  toward  the  eye;  skin  rich  yel- 


460 


GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 


Fig.  157. 


FRUITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTURE. 


401 


low,  nearly  covered  with  bright  red ;  dark  crimson  on  the 
side  exposed  to  the  sun,  sprinkled  with  white  specks; 
calyx  small,  open,  in  a  rather  deep  basin;  stalk  very 
short  and  fleshy,  inserted  in  a  moderate  sized  cavity, 
which  is  russeted;  flesh  white,  tender,  fine  grained,  juicy 


Fig.  158. 

and  rich,  of  a  subacid  flavor.  Ripens  in  October.  A 
splendid  fruit. 

Buff. — Fruit  of  the  largest  size,  roundish  and  some- 
what ribbed  and  angular;  skin  thick;  ground  color  yel- 
low, but  striped  and  shaded  with  dull  red,  marked  with 
a  few  greenish  spots  [stem  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long, 
in  a  medium  cavity;  calyx  in  a  large,  irregular  basin; 
flesh  yellowish,  and,  when  well  ripened,  tender  and  good, 
sometimes  indifferent.    Ripens  October  to  March. 

Camak's  Sweet. — Fruit  medium  to  large;  nearly 
round;  dull,  whitish-green,  mottled  with  green  russet,  the 
patches  of  which  are  made  up  with  small  dots,  with  a 


462 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Fig.  159. 


Fig.  160. 


FRUITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTDEE. 


463 


dull  blush  cheek  toward  the  suu;  stem  short  aud  slender; 
cavity  aud  basiu  broad;  calyx  closed;  flesh  firm  and  ten- 
der; scarcely  sweet,  juicy  and  fine  flavored;  best.  Keeps 
until  February. 

Carolina  Aromatic. — Fruit  large  size;  oblate  in  form, 
tapering  to  the  eye;  stalk  short  and  fleshy,  in  a  deep,  wide 
cavity;   calyx   in   a    wide,  shallow    basin;    color   green, 


Fig.  161. 


striped  with  dull  crimson,  and  covered  with  white  bloom; 
juicy  and  of  a  fine  aromatic  flavor.  Tree  a  vigorous 
grower  and  very  productive.  Ripens  July  15th  to  August 
1st. 

Carnation. — Medium  size;  a  delicious  subacid  apple; 
dark  red,  splashed  with  russet;  flesh  white,  brittle  and 
very  juicy;  both  stalk  and  calyx  are  sunk  in  deep  depres- 
sions; no  autumn  apple  is  superior;  ripens  August  10th. 

Cullasaga. — Large,  regular,  and  a  little  conical;  skin 
yellow,  and  nearly  covered  with  crimson;  calyx  small,  in 
2i  moderate  basin;  stem  short  and  fleshy;   flesh   yellow, 


404 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Fig.  162. 


Fig.  163. 


FRUITS VARIETIES   AND   CULTURE. 


465 


tender  and  juicy,  of  a  line  aromatic  flavor.  Ripens  in 
October;  A  first-rate  variety;  a  seedling  from  the  Horse 
Apple,  by  Miss  Ann  Bryson,  of  North  Carolina. 

Disharoon. — Fruit  large,  nearly  round;  skin  thin,  pale 
green ;  stem  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  slender, 
inserted  in  a  moderate  sized  cavity;  calyx  open,  of  com- 
mon size,  in  a  small  basin;  flesh  yellowish,  tender,  juicy, 
and  of  an  excellent  mild,  acid,  aromatic  flavor.  Ripens 
in  September.    A  native  of  Habersham  county,  Georgia. 


Fig.  164. 

Early  Harvest. — Fruit  medium  to  large  size,  round, 
sometimes  flattened;  skin  smooth,  with  a  few  white  dots, 
and  of  a  pale  yellow  color;  stalk  half  to  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  long,  slender,  in  a  moderate  cavity;  calyx  in  a 
shallow  basin;  flesh  white,  tender,  juicy,  crisp;  flavor 
rich,  sprightly,  and  subacid.  One  of  the  best  northern 
varieties;  ripens  from  the  15th  to  the  20th  of  June. 

Fall  Pippin. — Fruit  very  large,  roundish,  flattened, 
obscurely  ribbed;  stalk  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  in 
a  deep,  narrow  cavity;  calyx  small,  in  a  deep,  narrow 
basin;  flesh  tender  and  mellow,  with  a  rich,  aromatic, 
subacid  flavor.    A  splendid  apple  here.  Ripens  in  August. 

30 


466 


GARDEXIKG    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Fig.  166. 


FBUITS VARIETIES  AAD  CULTURE. 


467 


Hockett's  Sweet. — This  apple  originated  in  North 
Carolina;  medium  size;  round  oval;  yellow  reddish 
striped;  sweet  flavor,  and  rich  in  taste;  flesh  yellow,  but 
coarse  grained.    Ripens  in  winter. 

Hall. — Originated  in  North  Carolina;  small  apple, 
oblate  conical;  red  in  color  with  russet  dots;  mild  flavor 
with  yellowish  flesh,  and  aromatic  flavor;  suitable  for 
dessert.     Ripens  in  winter. 


Fig.  167. 

Horse. — Size  medium  to  large;  conical  in  form;  skin 
thick,  golden  yellow,  when  thoroughly  ripe,  with  a  blush 
cheek  on  the  sunny  side,  a  little  russeted  about  the  stem; 
stem  short,  and  rather  large,  in  a  shallow  cavity;  calyx 
in  a  narrow  basin;  core  large  and  hollow;  seeds  few; 
flesh  yellow,  firm,  coarse  grained,  with  a  rich  acid  flavor. 
Best  known  variety  for  drying.  Ripens  August  first. 
Tree  vigorous  and  very  productive. 

Julian. — Fruit  medium  size,  roundish,  tapering  some- 
what to  the  eye;  calyx  small,  in  a  narrow  basin;  stem 
short,  in  a  moderate  cavity;  skin  thin,  yellowish-white, 


468 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Fig.  168. 


Fig.  169. 


FRUITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTURE.  469 

beautifully  striped  and  marbled  with  carmine;  the  fruit 
is  of  a  delicate,  waxen  appearance;  flesh  white,  tender, 
juicy,  and  fine  flavored.  The  best  summer  apple  known; 
tree  a  fine  grower  and  very  productive.  Ripens  the  mid- 
dle of  July;  rarely  affected  by  worms. 

Jonathan. — Medium  size;  round  conical;  yellowish- 
red  striped;  flesh  white,  mild  in  flavor  and  juicy;  suitable 
for  dessert  and  market;  keeps  well;  winter  apple.  Origi- 
nated in  North  Carolina. 


Fig.  170. 

Limbertwig. — Fruit  large,  dull  red;  flesh  yellowish 
firm;  not  very  high  flavored;  round  oblate  conical;  winter; 
suitable  for  market.  The  pendant  branches  give  the  tree 
its  name.     It  originated  in  Virginia. 

Maiden's  Blush. — Fruit  medium  size;  flat,  smooth, 
and  fair;  skin  thin,  clear  lemon  3^ellow,  with  a  fine  blush 
to  the  sun;  stalk  short,  in  a  wide,  deep  cavity;  calyx 
closed,  in  a  moderate  basin ;  flesh  white,  tender,  sprightly, 
subacid.  Excellent  for  drying  and  culinary  uses,  and  a 
fair  dessert  fruit.    Ripens  the  first  of  July. 


470 


GARDENING     FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Fig.  171. 


rig.  1: 


FRUITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTURE. 


471 


Mangum. — Size  small  to  medium;  regular,  slightly 
conical;  stalk  small,  in  a  narrow  cavity;  color  green; 
nearly  covered  with  dark  red  stripes;  flesh  yellow  and 
firm;  of  excellent  quality  and  keeps  until  March. 

Mountain  Bell. — Size  medium  to  large;  oblate  and 
conical;  color  an  orange  ground,  shaded  and  striped  with 
red;  stem  short,  in  a  wide,  deep  cavity;  calyx  in  a  mode- 
rate size,  smooth  basin;  flesh  white,  hard  and  juicy,  a 
little    rough    in    texture,  and  of  a  fair,  subacid  flavor. 


Fig.  173. 

Ripens  November  to  Mav.  Second  quality,  but  a  famous 
keeper.  A  native  of  Habersham  county,  Georgia;  found 
in  an  old  Indian  field  by  J.  Van  Buren. 

Meigs  (Buncombe,  Red  Winter  Pearmain,  Red  Fall 
Pippin). — Fruit  large,  regular,  oblong,  narrowing  to  the 
eye,  sometimes  slightly  ribbed;  skin  yellow,  but  mostly 
covered  with  a  marbling  red,  and  sprinkled  with  promi- 
nent yellow  dots;  calyx  small,  closed,  and  set  in  a  narrow 
basin;  stalk  very  short,  thick,  in  a  deep,  narrow  cavity; 
flesh  yellowish  white,  tender,  juicy,  with  a  rich,  slightly 
subacid  flavor.    A  fine  native  variety.    Tree  thrifty,  and 


472 


GAEDENTNG    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 


Fig.  174. 


Fig.  175. 


FRUITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTURE.  473 

less  infested  with  woolly  aphis  than  many  others.  Ripens 
in  September. 

Margaret  (Early  Red,  Striped  June). — Small    apple, 
owish  red,  with  russet;  basin  shallow, 
mild  flavor,  quality  fair;  suitable  for 
dessert;  ripens  in  summer. 

Nickajack. — Fruit  large  to  very  large,  of  an  oblate 
form;  color  a  yellow  ground,  striped  with  dark  red, 
sprinkled  with  russet  specks;  calyx  large  and  open,  set  in 


Fig.  176. 

a  broad,  shallow  basin;  stem  short,  in  a  regular  cavity; 
flesh  juicy,  tender  and  rich,  mild  acid.  Ripens  late  and 
keeps  well  until  April.  Originated  by  John  Summerour, 
of  Burke  county,  North  Carolina. 

Oconee  Greening. — Medium  size,  and  resembles  the 
Disharoon  a  good  deal  in  external  appearance,  but  keeps 
well  much  longer,  and  is  of  a  more  acid  flavor.  Originated 
in  Georgia.     Good  dessert  apple.    Ripens  in  Autumn. 

Red  June. — Fruit  medium  size,  generally  oblong  in 
form;  skin  smooth,  green  in  the  shade,  changing  rapidly, 


474 


GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 


Fig.  177. 


Fig.  178. 


FRUITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTURE. 


475 


at  maturity,  to  a  fine  dark  crimson;  stem  half  to  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  long,  inserted  in  a  moderate  cavity; 
calyx  in  a  shallow  basin;  flesh  white,  tender,  mellow, 
and  digestible,  fine  grained,  slightly  acid,  moderately 
juicy,  but  not  rich.  A  fine  fruit,  and  very  productive; 
tree  very  liable  to  be  attacked  by  the  borer. 

Red  Astrachan. — Originated  in  Russia;  large  fruit, 
round,  conical;  bright  red  with  a  bloom;  acid  flavor;  flesh 


Fig.  179. 


white;  excellent  market  apple  and  good  for  cooking  pur- 
poses. Tree  is  vigorous  and  productive.  Ripens  in  early 
summer. 

Romanite. — Small  fruit;  round  conical;  yellowish  red 
in  color;  mild  flavor  and  quality  very  good;  suitable  for 
the  mountain  regions.  A  good  dessert  apple.  Ripens  in 
late  winter. 

Rome  Beauty. — Large  apple,  round  conical;  yellow 
with  red  stripes;  flavor  mild;  juicy  and  fine  grained. 
Ripens  in  autumn  or  late  summer.     The  large  and  fine 


476 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Fig.  180. 


Fig.  181. 


FRUITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTURE.  477 

appearance  of  this  apple  makes  it  an  excellent  market 
variety. 

Shockley  (Waddel's  Hall). — Fruit  medium,  round- 
ish, oblong,  narrowing  to  the  eye;  skin  yellow,  clouded, 
and  striped  with  red,  and  with  blotches  of  very  dark- 
greenish  russet;  stalk  long,  slender,  inserted  in  a  deep, 
narrow  cavity;  calyx  closed,  set  in  a  shallow  basin;  flesh 
firm;  saccharine;  of  good  second-rate  flavor;  ripe  in  Octo- 
ber, and  will  keep  till  March. 


Fig.  182. 

Summer  Queen. — Large  fruit,  round  conical;  yellow, 
with  red  stripes;  long  stalk  in  small  cavity;  flesh  yellow 
with  an  acid  flavor.  Ripens  in  summer.  A  good  market 
apple. 

Stephenson. — This  apple  originated  in  Alabama. 
Medium  size,  round  oblong;  yellow  with  red  stripes; 
quality  fair,  with  a  mild  taste;  a  good  dessert  and  market 
apple,  with  excellent  keeping  qualities.  The  tree  is 
vigorous  and  prolific.  Ripens  in  late  winter. 

Sops  of  Wine  (Homony,  Summer  Queen  of  Kentucky). 
An  average  size,  round;  dark  yellowish  red ;   long  stalk; 


478 


GARDENING     FOE    THE    SOUTH. 


flesh  white,  mild  in  taste  and  good  flavor.  Ripens  in 
summer.  An  excellent  apple  for  market.  Tree  good 
bearer;  prolific. 

Smokehouse. — Originated  in  Pennsylvania,  but  a  very 
popular  apple  in  Virginia;  rather  large,  round  oblate; 
3fellow  with  irregular  red  stripes;  .flesh  yellowish  white 
with  a  fine  flavor.  An  excellent  cooking  and  market 
apple.   Ripens  in  late  summer  to  autumn. 


Fig.  183. 

Taunton. — Originated  in  Alabama  or  Georgia;  large 
apple,  oblate  conical;  yellow  with  red  stripes;  acid  flavor, 
and  good  quality;  fine  for  market,  and  an  open  grower. 
Ripens  in  winter. 

Watson  (Carolina). — Very  large,  oblate  conical;  green 
with  red  stripes;  flavor  and  quality  good.  Ripens  in  sum- 
mer.   A  prolific  and  profitable  market  fruit. 

White  Juneating.— Quite  a  small  apple,  round 
oblate;  yellowish  red;  good  flavor;  long,  slender  stalk  in 


-VARIETIES   AND   CULTURE. 


479 


a  shallow  cavity;  suitable  for  cooking  purposes.  Ripens 
in  summer.     Productive. 

Winesap. — Medium  size,  round  oblong;  bright  yellow- 
ish red;  stalk  slender  and  average  length;  flesh  yellow, 
with  an  acid  flavor.  Ripens  in  late  winter.  Good  market 
and  dessert  apple. 

Yellow  June. — Fruit  medium  size;  form  rather  flat; 
stem  short,  in  a  deep  cavity;  calyx  large  and  open,  in  a 
moderate  basin;  skin  thin,  and  of  greenish-yellow  color; 
flesh  yellowish,  tender  and  juicy.    An  excellent  variety, 


Fig.  184— York  Imperial.     Div.  Pomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 


and  worthy  a  place  in  every  garden.  Ripens  from  th<> 
15th  to  the  20th  of  June. 

Yorp. — Originated  in  Georgia.  Large  fruit;  greenish 
yellow,  with  red;  very  good  flavor  and  quality;  prolific; 
bears  young.     Ripens  in  summer. 

York  Imperial  (Johnson's  Fine  Winter). — Large, 
oblate  and  oblique;  yellow  with  red  stripes;  flavor  good; 
flesh  yellow,  juicy.  A  fine  shipping  variety,  which  origi- 
nated in  Pennsylvania.    Ripens  in  autumn. 

Yellow7  Newtown  Pippin  (Albemarle  Pippin). — Size 
medium  to  large,  round  oblate;  yellow  with  a  lively  red 
cast;  smooth  with  russet  marks  at  the  stem;  flavor  very 


480 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


rich;  flesh  firm,  crisp  and  juicy;  highly  fragrant.  Ripens 
very  late  or  in  winter,  and  is  an  excellent  dessert  and 
market  apple.  It  is  grown  to  perfection  in  Albemarle 
county,  Virginia. 

The  varieties  of  apples  best  adapted  to  the  different 
sections  of  the  South  may  be  classified  as  follows: 

Virginia. 
Summer  Varieties:  Bough,  Carolina,  Early  Harvest, 
Jefferis,  Maiden's  Blush,  Margaret  (Striped  June),  Red 


Fig.  185. 

June,  Red  Astrachan,  Smokehouse,  Sops  of  Wine,  Sum- 
mer Queen,  White  Juneating. 

Autumn. — Baldwin,  Buckingham,  Cullasaga,  Fall 
Pippin,  Rome  Beauty,  York  Imperial. 

Winter. — Ben  Davis,  Jonathan,  Limbertwig,  Nicka- 
jack,  Romanite,  Shockley,  Winesap,  Yellow  Newtown 
Pippin  (Albemarle). 


FRUITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTURE.  481 

North  and   South  Carolina  and   Georgia. 

Summer. — Early  Harvest,  Family,  Horse,  Julian, 
Maiden's  Blush,  Margaret  (Striped  June),  Red  Astrachan, 
Red  June,  Sops  of  Wine,  Summer  Queen,  Yellow  June. 

Autumn. — Buckingham,  Carter's  Blue,  Disharoon, 
Meigs  (Buncombe),  Oconee,  Rome  Beauty,  Taunton. 

Winter. — Ben  Davis,  Camak,  Hockett,  Mangum,  Nick- 
ajack,  Paragon,  Romanite,  Shockley,  Stephenson,  Yates. 

Alabama,  Mississippi,  North  Louisiana,  West  Tennessee,  South 
Arkansas,  and  East  Texas. 

Summer. — Bough,  Carolina  Watson,  Early  Harvest 
(Northeast  Alabama),  Family,  Horse,  Julian,  Margaret 
(Northeast  Alabama),  Rome  Beauty  (Northeast  Ala- 
bama), Red  Astrachan,  Sops  of  Wine  (Northeast  Ala- 
bama), Summer  Queen  (Northeast  Alabama),  White 
Juneating,  Yellow  June. 

Autumn. — Arkansas,  Buckingham,  Carter's  Blue,  Dis- 
haroon, Oconee,  Taunton. 

Winter. — Camack,  Hockett,  Horn,  Romanite,  Shock- 
ley,  Stephenson,  Winesap,  Yates, 

East  Tennessee  and  Kentucky. 

Summer. — Early  Harvest,  Horse,  Maiden's  Blush, 
Margaret,  Red  Astrachan,  Red  June,  Summer  Queen, 
White  Juneating. 

Autumn. — Buckingham,  Fall  Pippin,  Rome  Beauty, 
York  Imperial. 

Winter. — Ben  Davis,  Paragon,  Winesap. 

Texas. 
Summer. — Bough,  Red  Astrachan,  Red  June,  Horse. 
Autumn. — Black    Twig,    Fall    Pippin,    Rome    Beauty, 
Buckingham. 

Winter. — Ben    Davis,    Jonathan,    Nickajack,    Meigs, 
Paragon,  Shockley,  Winesap. 
31 


482  GAKDENING    FOE    TIIE    SOUTH. 

Florida  and  South  Louisiana. 
Summer. — Tied  Astrachan,  Jennings. 

Gathering  the  Fruit. — Apples  intended  for  keeping,  or 
sending  to  market,  should  be  carefully  picked  from  the 
tree,  and  handled  with  care,  to  prevent  bruising.  Those 
that  fall  of  themselves  must  be  kept  separate,  as  the  least 
bruise  will  cause  decay.  They  must  be  frequently  looked 
over,  and  every  one  the  least  decayed  must  be  removed, 
or  it  will  infect  the  others.  They  should  be  kept  at  a 
uniform  temperature,  in  a  dry,  cool  situation.  Choice 
specimens  may  be  wrapped  in  absorbent  paper,  and  laid 
singly  on  shelves.  They  should  not  be  exposed  to  much 
frost,  and  still  less  to  extremes  of  heat.  Specimens  may 
thus  be  kept  in  good  condition  until  March.  A  fruit  room 
should  be  kept  as  cool  us  possible,  and  if  the  temperature 
could  be  uniformly  at  32°,  no  decay  would  take  place. 

In  selecting  varieties  for  cultivation,  preference  should, 
as  far  as  practicable,  be  given  to  those  of  southern  origin. 
Of  northern  varieties,  those  classed  as  summer  apples 
succeed  very  well  here.  Some  of  the  early  autumn  varie- 
ties also  do  well,  and,  of  course,  are  summer  apples  with 
us.  But  the  winter  apples,  as  a  class,  are  entirely  un- 
suited  to  the  Southern  States.  The  last  few  years  have 
developed,  with  us,  a  very  large  number  of  as  choice  and 
beautiful  varieties  of  winter  apples  as  can  be  found  any- 
where, so  thai  we  can  have  an  abundant  supply  during 
the  entire  year. 

Marketing. — It  does  not  pay  to  ship  inferior  fruit  of 
any  character,  and  this  is  especially  true  with  apples, 
where  there  is  such  great  competition.  Store  the  apples 
for  a  short  while  in  order  to  give  them  an  opportunity 
to  shrink  and  sweat.  By  this  method  the  inferior  grades 
will  become  more  evident.    Use  barrels  of  the  best  make; 


FRUITS — -VARIETIES  AiSJD  CULTURE.  483 

it  is  poor  economy  to  ship  in  poor  barrels.  1'ack  carefully, 
shaking  now  and  then  to  insure  the  thorough  settling  of 
the  fruit,  thus  making  a  compact  safe  package.  "  Every 
barrel  should  be  faced,  but  the  facing  should  be  properly 
done,  in  order  to  make  the  barrel  look  attractive,  but  not 
to  deceive.  The  object  of  this  facing  is  to  have  two  flat 
layers  at  the  top,  steins  upward.  Select  nice,  bright, 
smooth  fruit  for  the  purpose,  but  the  size  of  the  apples 
used  for  facing  should  be  an  accurate  indication  of  the 
average  size  of  the  entire  contents  of  the  barrel.  The 
facing  is  done  first  in  packing  the  barrel,  the  lirst  two 
layers  being  put  in  the  bottom,  stems  down,  this  becom- 
ing the  top  when  open.  The  head  is  best  put  in  with  a 
screw  press.  W  hen  practicable,  apples  should  be  packed 
by  an  experienced  workman.  The  stencil  marking  should 
be  placed  on  the  top,  the  stenciling  carefully  done,  and 
the  variety  plainly  indicated.  The  neat  appearance  of 
the  barrel  often  makes  quite  a  difference  in  the  price 
obtained.  Stenciling  should  always  be  done  on  the  faced 
end,  as  it  marks  the  top,  which  commission  merchants 
always  open."    (Farmers'  Bulletin  62.) 

APRICOT. — ( Primus  Armeniaca.) 
The  Apricot  is  a  fruit  somewhat  resembling  both  the 
plum  and  the  peach.  The  tree  is  ornamental  as  well  as 
useful;  larger  than  the  plum,  with  glossy,  heart-shaped, 
large  leaves  and  white  blossoms,  which  appear  so  early 
that  they  are  usually  killed  by  spring  frosts.  P>ut,  as  with 
the  nectarine,  the  great  obstacle  to  its  culture  is  the  cur- 
culio,  which  may  be  treated  as  in  the  case  of  that  fruit. 
In  favorable  seasons  the  apricot  is  very  productive.  The 
apricot  is  a  native  of  Armenia  and  other  parts  of  Central 
Asia.  In  quality,  it  is  second  only  to  the  peach,  but, 
coming  earlier,  it  is  very  acceptable. 

For  jellies,  tarts,  and  preserving  in  brandy  or  sugar,  it 
is  much  esteemed,  and  is  excellent  when  dried  as  directed 


484  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

for  the  peach.  The  apricot  is  generally  budded  on  the 
plum  stock;  it  is  sometimes  propagated  on  its  own  root, 
and  also  upon  the  peach.  The  plum  is  the  hardier  stock, 
and  makes  the  better  tree.  It  may  be  root-grafted  on  the 
Chickasaw  plum.  Those  propagated  by  seed  are  usually 
very  hardy  and  productive.  On  the  peach  stock,  the  tree 
is  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  the  borer,  and  the  fruit  is 
inferior. 

Apricots  are  apt  to  bloom  so  early  in  the  spring  that  it 
is  best  to  plant  them  in  a  northern  exposure,  where  they 
will  be  retarded  in  blooming;  by  the  side  of  a  building 
there  is  less  danger  of  frost.  It  is  just  as  necessary  to 
shorten  in  the  young  branches  of  the  apricot  as  those  of 
the  peach. 

The  best  soil  is  a  deep  loam;  cultivate  and  manure  the 
same  as  the  peach.  The  hardiest  apricots  are  the  Dubois, 
Early  Golden,  Orange,  and  Breda. 

Dubois  ok  Early  Golden. — Fruit  small,  roundish 
oval;  pale  orange  color,  moderately  juicy,  sweet  and 
good;   very  productive  and  hardy.    Ripens  June  10th. 

Large  Early. — Fruit  medium  size,  oblong  and  com- 
pressed; suture  deep;  skin  slightly  downy,  pale  orange 
in  the  shade,  ruddy  in  the  sun;  flesh  yellow,  and  separates 
from  the  stone,  rich  and  juicy;  kernel  bitter.  Ripens 
June  10th. 

Orange. — Fruit  medium,  roundish,  with  suture  hol- 
lowed at  the  stalk;  skin  orange,  with  a  ruddy  tinge;  flesh 
dark  orange,  rather  dry,  and  somewhat  adhesive  to  the 
stone,  which  is  small  and  roundish;  kernel  sweet;  not  first 
rate,  but  good  for  pies  and  tarts,  preserving  or  drying; 
a  good  bearer.     Ripens  June  10th. 

Peach. — Fruit  very  large,  roundish;  sides  compressed, 
and  with  a  distinct  suture;  skin  yellow,  but  deep  orange, 
mottled  with  brown,  in  the  sun;  flesh  deep  yellow,  rich 
and  delicious;  the  best  variety  in  cultivation;  stone 
rough.    Ripens  last  of  June. 


FRUITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTURE.  485 

Breda. — Small,  roundish;  color  deep  yellow,  darker  in 
the  sun;  flesh  deep  orange;  high  flavored,  rich  and  juicy, 
separating  from  the  stone;  kernel  sweet;  a  native  of 
Africa;  hardy,  productive  and  fine  for  the  dessert  or  pre- 
serves.    Ripens  middle  of  June. 

Moorpark. — Large,  roundish  oval;  skin  orange,  with 
a  ruddy  cheek;  flesh  bright  orange,  free  from  the  stone, 
juicy,  and  of  rich,  luscious  flavor;  stone  perforated; 
hardly  differs  from  the  peach  apricot,  not  quite  so  large, 
and  a  little  later.   Ripens  July  20th.     Very  productive. 

Hemskirke. — Fruit  large,  roundish,  but  considerably 
compressed  ou  its  side;  skin  orange,  with  a  red  cheek; 
flesh  bright  orange,  tender,  rather  more  juicy  than  the 
Moorpark,  with  a  rich,  luscious  flavor;  stone  small  and 
kernel  bitter.    Ripens  July  1st. 

Royal. — Fruit  round,  large,  slightly  compressed;  skin 
dull  yellow,  with  a  darker  cheek,  faintly  tinged  with  red; 
with  a  slightly  marked  suture;  flesh  pale  orange,  firm  and 
juicy,  with  a  rich,  vinous  flavor.    Ripeus  July  1st. 

Musch. — Fruit  average  size,  rouud;  skin  yellow- 
orange.  Ripens  in  middle  summer.  Grows  successfully 
in  Alabama  and  Georgia. 

Santa  Fe. — This  fruit  originated  in  Florida,  and  is  one 
of  the  best  apricots  for  the  extreme  South.  Flowers  begin 
showing  late  enough  to  avoid  danger  from  frosts,  and 
matures  fruit  the  last  of  May  or  first  of  June.  Fruit 
medium  size,  yellow  with  red-brown  dots;  flesh  light  yel- 
low; quality  best;  freestone. 

Hubbard. — Named  in  honor  of  ex-Governor  Hubbard, 
of  Texas,  who  imported  it  from  Japan.  Succeeds  well  in 
Texas  and  Louisiana.  Fruit  rather  large;  yellow  in  color 
and  good  flavor. 

Bungo. — A  Japanese  apricot;  fruit  bright  yellow  and 
good  quality. 


FKUITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTUIiE.  487 

BANANA. — ( Musa  sapientium.) 

Several  varieties  of  this  fruit  have  been  in  cultivation 
throughout  Florida  and  along  the  coast  of  South  Caro- 
lina, Georgia,  Alabama  and  Louisiana  for  many  years. 
But,  like  all  other  sub-tropical  fruits,  it  attains  its  best 
condition  in  growth  and  perfection  of  fruit  far  south  in 
Florida,  some  bunches  containing  as  many  as  ^00 
bananas. 

The  varieties  in  general  cultivation  in  Florida  are: 

Baracoa. — The  red  Jamaica  variety,  with  large  fruit, 
good  quality  and  red  in  color.  This  is  the  ordinary  com- 
mercial variety. 

Cavendish. — Also  known  as  "Dwarf,"  "Chinese," 
"Martinique"  {M.  (Javendishii),  medium  size,  yellow  and 
excellent  quality  of  fruit;  a  dwarf  species. 

Golden. — Fruit  large,  yellow  and  of  good  quality. 

These  three  are  the  best  market  varieties. 

Hart's  Choice  (J/,  orient  tan). — Ranges  farther  north 
than  the  Baracoa,  Cavendish  or  Golden.  Small  growth; 
sometimes  called  fig  banana;  quality  excellent;  yellow  in 
color,     ltipens  sooner  than  other  varieties. 

Orinoco  or  "  Horse  "  Banana  (M.  paradissica). — 
Hardy,  and  grows  farther  north  than  any  other  variety; 
quality  of  fruit  fair;  large  and  yellow  in  color. 

The  banana  is  propagated  by  suckers  or  offsets.  When 
the  fruit  ripens  the  plant  dies  down  to  the  ground,  and 
several  shoots  afterwards  put  forth  from  the  roots.  All 
of  these  should  be  cut  out  and  transplanted  except  two 
or  three  of  different  ages,  which,  when  they  grow  to 
maturity,  will  ripen  their  fruits  in  successive  years.  In 
transplanting  the  offsets  or  tuckers  the  land  must  be 
well  prepared  and  holes  about  two  feet  deep  dug  and 
an    ample   supply   of   fertilizer   containing   potash    and 


488 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


vegetable  mould  added.  Ashes  and  stable  manure  are 
excellent.  The  rows  are  run  nine  feet  apart,  and  the 
plants  are  placed  in  these  rows  eight  to  nine  feet  apart, 
each  plant  opposite  the  vacant  space  in  the  next  row. 
Marketing. — The  banana  is  sold  to  the  fruit-dealer  on 
the  bunch.  The  shipment  is  made  either  in  barrels  or 
barrel-crates,  with  the  fruit  packed  in  straw,  or  placed 
snugly  in  fruit-cars,  when  shipped  in  large  quantities  to 
one  dealer,  with  each  bunch  wrapped  with  straw  or  paper 
to  protect  from  bruising. 


THE  BLACKBERRY.— ( 7? ubus   villosus,   etc.) 

The  Blackberry  is  a  tolerable  dessert  fruit,  being  used 
for  tarts,  pies,  puddings,  jams,  and  preserves.     It  con- 


Fig.  186— Early  Harvest  Black- 
berry.    One-half  size. 


Fig.  187— Wilson's 

Early  Blackberry. 

Average  size. 


tinues  a  long  time  in  bearing,  and  the  fruit  may  be  dried 
for  winter  use.  A  very  good  wine  is  made  from  the  juice, 
which  more  nearly  resembles  Madeira  than  any  made 
from  our  native  grapes.  There  is  a  white  variety,  which 
differs  from  the  black  only  in  color,  and  is  occasionally 
found  growing  wild  amongst  the  black. 


FRUITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTURE. 


489 


Although  the  blackberry  grows  in  profusion  in  almost 
every  old  field  throughout  the  South,  still  it  is  greatly 
improved  in  size  and  quality  by  careful  cultivation  and 
selection.     The  following  varieties  are  recommended": 

Early  Harvest. — This  is  very  productive  and  very 
sweet;  valuable  for  an  early  crop. 


-Kittatinny  Blackberry  (after  Bailey).     Cornell 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin  99. 

Kittatinny.— A  large  fine  flavored  fruit  (Berckmah's), 
ripening  in  June.    The  plant  is  erect. 

Wilson's  Early.— Plant  trailing;  fruit  very  large  and 
sweet,  prolific  and  begins  ripening  in  May. 


490  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Dallas. — Originated  in  Texas  and  is  popular  in  that 
State. 

The  Dewberry  (comprising  both  Rubus  Canadensis 
and  trivialis)  is  also  very  common  at  the  South;  is  run- 
ning or  trailing,  and  ripens  its  fruit  some  two  weeks  in 
advance  of  the  high  bush  varieties,  and  the  fruit  is 
sweeter. 

There  are  several  cultivated  varieties,  the  best  of 
which  are  Downing's,  Stubbs',  Austin,  and  Lucretia. 
The  last-named  has  a  large,  very  sweet  fruit  of  excellent 
quality.  If  the  plants  are  attacked  by  fungi  and  insects 
use  the  spraying  formulae  given  elsewhere  in  this  book. 

Marketing. — Care  must  be  exercised  in  packing,  be- 
cause of  the  tender  fruit.  Pick  before  quite  ripe  and 
pack  in  24  or  32-quart  crates. 

CHERRY.— ( Cents  us .) 

The  Cherry,  it  is  said,  was  brought  from  Asia  by  Lucul- 
lus,  the  Roman  general;  and  from  Rome  its  culture 
spread  over  Europe.  In  cooler  latitudes  some  of  the 
varieties  are  quite  ornamental  on  account  of  their  fine 
foliage  and  early  white  blossoms,  but  it  stops  growing 
and  drops  its  leaves  too  early  in  our  climate  to  be  es- 
teemed for  this  purpose. 

In  the  Southern  States  but  few  varieties  succeed  well, 
except  the  common  Morello  or  Tie-Cherry.  The  trees  of 
the  finer  varieties  grow  very  well  for  some  three  or  four 
years,  and  then  commence  splitting  and  dying  on  the 
southwest  side  of  the  trunk.  We  have  seen  a  few  that 
grew  and  bore  fine  crops  for  a  few  years  when  planted  on 
the  top  of  poor,  rocky  hills.  The  splitting  of  the  bark 
appears  to  be  caused  by  a  too  luxuriant  growth.  The 
trees  should  be  planted  in  poor  ground,  and  have  but 
little  or  no  manuring.  Train  the  trees  with  low  heads, 
so  as  to  shade  the  trunks  and  protect  them  from  the 


FRUITS VARIETIES  AXD  CULTURE. 


491 


sun.  Cherries  are  generally  grafted  or  budded  on  the 
Mazzard  or  wild  European  stock,  though  the  Mahaleb 
or  Perfumed-cherry  stock  is  preferable,  as  it  dwarfs  the 
tree,  and  is  less  liable  to  split  and  sun-burn. 

It  is  not  probable  that  the  finer  varieties  of  the  Cherry 
will  ever  be  very  successfully  cultivated  at  the  South 
until  we  raise  seedlings  suited  to  the  climate. 

Of  the  varieties  described  below,  the  Elton,  May  Duke, 


Elton.  Rockport. 

Fig.  1S9. 


Magnifique. 


Sweet  Montmorency,  and  common  Morello  are  the  only 
ones  that  have  ever  produced  good  crops  with  us. 

Cherries  are  divided  into  two  groups  or  species — 
Cerasus  avium  and  C.  vulgaris.  The  first  are  called 
"  Heart  and  Bigarreau,"  and  the  second  species  are 
known  as  "  Duke  and  Morello  "  cherries. 

Heart  and  Bicarreat  Cherries. — Fruit  sweet,  ten- 
der and  heart-shaped.  The  plant  grows  to  the  height  of 
a  medium-sized  tree,  with  spreading  branches  and  droop- 
ing leaves.     The  varieties  best  known  are: 

Black  Heart. — Large,  heart-shaped;  skin  glossy,  dark 
purple,  changing  to  black  when  ripe;  stalk  one  inch  and 


492 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


a  half  long,  in  a  moderate  cavity;  flesh  half  tender,  juicy, 
and  of  a  rich,  sweet  flavor.  A  large,  hardy  tree,  but  dis- 
posed to  split. 

Downer. — Fruit  medium,  borne  in  clusters,  roundish 
heart-shaped,  inclining  to  oval;  skin  smooth,  of  a  soft, 
lively  red  color,  mottled  with  amber  in  the  shade;  flesh 
tender,  melting,  with  a  sweet,  luscious  flavor. 


Fig.  190— Cherry. 


Napoleon  (after  Bailey).     Cornell  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin  98. 


Rockport. — Very  large,  heart-shaped;  skin  deep  red 
on  amber  ground;  flesh  pale  yellow,  fine,  juicy,  with  a 
sweet,  rich  flavor.   Splits  at  the  South. 

Elton. — Very  large,  heart-shaped;  skin  pale  yellow, 
with  a  mottled  red  cheek;  stalk  long  and  slender;  flesh 
firm  at  first,  becoming  tender,  juicy,  with  a  rich,  luscious 
flavor.  Tree  grows  slowly,  and  is  not  disposed  to  split. 
Ripens  May  20th  to  June  1st. 


FKTTITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTURE. 


493 


Kirtland's  Mary. — Very  large,  roundish  heart- 
shaped;  color  light  and  dark  red,  mottled  on  a  yellow 
ground;  stalk  of  moderate  size;  flesh  light  yellow,  half 
tender,  rich,  juicy,  with  a  sweet  flavor. 


Fig.  191— Cherry.     Black  Tartarian  (after  Bailey). 
Cornell  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  98. 

Napoleon  (Royal  Ann). — Large,  heart-shaped;  color 
yellowish-red;  stem  long;  flavor  fair,  but  not  first  class; 
flesh  firm ;  a  good  shipping  cherry.    Ripens  rather  late. 


494 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Black   Tartarian. — Very  large,  heart-shaped;   color 
black;  stem  long;  flavor  rich  and  pleasant.    Ripens  early. 


Duke  and  Morello  Cherries. 

The  fruit  with  these  cherries  is  usually  acid  or  sub- 
acid, tender  and  pleasant.  Trees  are  more  bushy  than 
the  Hearts,  and  the  plants  are  somewhat  smaller.  The 
varieties  are  as  follows: 


Fig.  192— Cherry.      English  Morello  (after  Bailey).     Large 

Morello.     Dutch  Morello.     Donald's  Morello.    Cornell 

Experiment  Station  Bulletin  98. 

Reine  Hortense. — Fruit  large,  bright  red,  tender, 
juicy,  nearly  sweet,  and  delicious.  Tree  grows  vigorously, 
bears  well,  and  if  planted  on  poor  ground  is  not  inclined 
to  split.     An  excellent  fruit. 

Belle  Magnifique. — A  large  red  cherry;  rather  acid, 
tender,  juicy,  and  rich;  fine  for  cooking,  and  for  dessert 
when  fully  ripe.  Tree  ot  slow  growth,  but  bears  pro- 
fusely. 


FEUITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTURE. 


495 


English  Morello. — Tolerably  large,  roundish,  nearly 
black;  flesh  reddish-purple,  tender,  juicy,  of  a  pleasant 
subacid  flavor.  The  common  Morello  of  this  country  is 
smaller  and  inferior  to  the  above,    Ripens  May  20th. 

Plumstone  Morello. — Large,  dark  red,  rich  and  fine 
flavor;  the  best  of  all  Morellos.  Tree  slow  grower,  aud 
has  small,  wiry  shoots. 

Sweet  Montmorency. — Fruit  of  medium  size,  round, 
and  a  little  flattened;  skin  pale  amber  in  the  shade,  light 


pig-  103— Cherry.     May  Duke  (after  Bailey).   Cornell  Experiment 
Bulletin  98. 


red,  slightly  mottled  in  the  sun;  stalks  long  and  sjender, 
inserted  in  a  small,  even  depression;  flesh  yellowish,  ten- 
der, sweet  and  excellent.   One  of  the  best  at  the  South. 

May  Duke. — Fruit  roundish,  medium  size,  and  in  clus- 
ters; skin  lively  red  at  first,  dark  red  when  ripe;  flesh 


^^r^*^^^^ ^ 


(496) 


Plate  7— Cocoanut  Palm. 


FKUITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTURE.  497 

reddish,  tender,  melting,  very  juicy;  rich  and  excellent 
when  fully  ripe.    Ripens  early  in  May. 

Early  Richmond  or  Kentish. — Fruit  small  to 
medium,  round,  a  little  flattened;  grows  in  pairs;  skin 
bright  red,  growing  dark  when  ripe;  stalk  one  and  a 
fourth  inch  long,  stout,  and  set  in  a  pretty  deep  hollow; 
flesh  melting,  juicy,  and  of  a  rich,  sprightly  flavor.  A 
hardy  variety  and  excellent  for  cooking. 

Late  Kentish. — Resembles  the  above,  but  is  two 
weeks  later;  a  little  larger  and  excellent  for  cooking,  pre- 
serving and  drying. 

Marketing. — The  24-quart  crate  is  suitable  for  this 
fruit  when  shipped  in  quantity.  The  best  varieties,  how- 
ever, may  be  shipped  with  profit  in  the  climax  basket. 

COCOANTJT. — (Cocos  nucifera,  Linn.) 
This  plant  is  propagated  by  seed.  The  nuts  are  placed 
in  holes  one  and  a  half  to  two  feet  deep,  partly  covered 
with  earth,  and  as  the  seedling  grows  the  hole  is  grad- 
ually filled  until  the  surface  is  reached.  The  seedlings 
are  transplanted  to  the  field  where  the  trees  are  to  per- 
manently grow,  and  set  out  twenty-five  or  thirty  feet 
apart.  They  will  begin  fruiting,  under  favorable  circum- 
stances within  seven  years,  and  will  continue  bearing- 
nuts  for  more  than  sixty  years.  These  nuts  grow  in 
bunches,  with  five  to  fifteen  in  each  bunch,  and  a  well- 
grown  tree  will  produce  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  nuts 
each  year.  The  cocoanut  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the 
coast  of  South  Florida,  and  extensive  plantations  are  to 
be  found  in  that  portion  of  the  State.  But  little  attention 
has  been  devoted  to  developing  varieties. 

CUREANT.— (.Riles.) 
The  currant  is  a  low  shrub,  a  native  of  Great  Britain 
and  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  America;  with 


498  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

smooth  branches,  doubly-serrate,  pubescent  leaves,  and 
yellowish  flowers,  which  ripen  early  in  the  spring.  The 
fruit  ripens  with  the  later  strawberries  and  raspberries. 
It  succeeds  and  thrives  admirably  in  our  mountain  sec- 
tions, and  will  live  and  bear  tolerably  Avell  here  in  a  cool 
northern  exposure,  but  would  probably  die  the  first  sea- 
son near  the  sea-coast. 

The  fruit  is  of  an  agreeable  acid  taste;  when  ripe  it  is 
used  with  sugar  for  dessert,  and  also  alone,  or  mixed 
with  raspberries,  for  jams,  jellies  and  wine.  It  is  used 
both  green  and  ripe  for  stewing,  tarts  and  pies.  In  cool 
climates  it  is  the  most  easily  cultivated  and  useful  of 
small  fruits. 

The  currant  is  propagated  from  cuttings,  which  should 
be  planted  in  the  fall  in  a  shaded  place,  but  not  under 
trees;  the  north  side  of  a  plank  fence  is  an  excellent  situa- 
tion, provided  it  is  open  to  the  morning  sun. 

The  currant  requires  a  moist,  rich  soil,  and  should  be 
trained  as  a  bush.  All  the  pruning  it  requires  is  to  cut 
out  the  superabundant  old  wood,  and  to  shorten  that  of 
the  last  season's  growth. 

There  are  two  species  of  the  currant — />'.  nigrum  and 
R.  rubrum.  The  Naples  variety  of  the  first  species  has 
been  grown  with  some  degree  of  success  in  Georgia, 
South  and  North  Carolina  and  Texas.  The  following- 
varieties  of  R.  rubrum  were  cultivated  by  Mr.  White  in 
Athens,  Georgia,  with  success,  and  are  recommended: 

Red  Dutch. — Fruit  of  large  size,  oblate,  borne  in  clus- 
ters, and  less  acid  than  the  common  red;  color  fine  trans- 
parent red. 

White  Dutch. — Large,  yellowish-white,  less  acid  than 
the  red  varieties. 

We  could  describe  several  other  varieties,  but  not 
having  had  any  success  with  them,  we  only  give  those 
with  which  we  have  succeeded. 


FEUITS VARIETIES  AND  CULTUKE.  499 

varieties  are  recommended 
by  the  Division  of  Pomology  as  suitable  for  North  and 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia:  Cherry,  Fay,  Versail- 
laise,  Victoria,  and  White  Grape.  The  Cherry,  Fay, 
and  White  Grape  are  especially  desirable  in  Eastern 
Texas. 

Marketing. — It  is  customary  to  send  this  fruit  to 
market  in  24  or  32-quart  boxes. 

THE  FIG. — (Ficus  Carica.) 

The  Fig  is  a  large  shrub,  or  a  low,  spreading  tree,  ac- 
cording to  the  manner  in  which  it  is  trained.  Some 
varieties  grow  to  the  height  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet,  in 
favorable  localities,  but  it  generally  does  not  reach  above 
half  that  height.  The  leaves  are  large,  cordate,  and 
deeply  sinuate,  with  three  to  five  lobes,  thick  and  pubes- 
cent on  the  under  surface.  The  blossoms  are  not  appa- 
rent, but  concealed  in  the  inside  of  the  fleshy  receptacle 
that  becomes  the  fruit,  which  consists  of  a  pulp,  contain- 
ing numerous  pericarps  enclosed  in  a  rind,  which  be- 
comes variously  colored  in  the  different  varieties.  Though 
the  fruit  is  too  sweet  and  luscious  for  those  unaccus- 
tomed to  it,  with  use  it  soon  becomes  a  great  favorite, 
and  is  perhaps  the  most  wholesome  and  nutritious  of 
fruits.  The  fig  is  a  native  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  has 
been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  times.  It  is  perfectly 
at  home  in  all  the  low  country  and  middle  portions  of  the 
Southern  States,  and  as  universally  cultivated  below  the 
mountain  section  as  the  peach.  Large  quantities  of  dried 
figs  are  imported  into  the  United  States,  and  are  even 
sold  in  our  own  section.  At  very  little  expense,  they 
could  be  put  up  at  home  and  even  exported  at  a  profit. 

A  good  way  to  dry  figs  is  to  gather  them  when  per- 
fectly ripe,  and  boil  them  in  a  preserving  kettle  in  a 
syrup  of  nice  sugar  about  five  minutes.    Take  them  out, 


500  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

dry  them  in  a  warm  oven,  or  a  kiln  made  for  drying 
fruits.    When  dry  they  can  be  packed  in  drums  or  boxes. 

Imported  figs  are  dipped  in  a  hot  lye  made  of  fig  wood 
ashes,  and  dried  on  frames  in  the  sun;  when  dried  here 
they  are  apt  to  be  infested  with  minute  insects.  The  fig- 
is  readily  propagated  by  shoots,  or  cuttings  from  the 
roots,  planted  in  the  fall  or  spring.  Cuttings  should  be 
eight  or  ten  inches  long,  and  include  a  small  portion  of 
old  wood  at  the  base  of  each;  if  planted  in  a  hot-bed  in 
January,  they  will  make  handsome  plants  the  same  sea- 
son. Figs  should  be  planted  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  apart 
in  good,  rich  earth.  The  Celestial  Fig  is  best  trained  as  a 
low  tree.  The  best  soil  for  the  fig  is  a  mellow  loam  of  a 
calcareous  nature. 

Ashes,  marl,  or  composts  prepared  with  mild  lime  form 
the  best  manure.  If  the  soil  is  too  moist  the  fig  continues 
its  growth  too  late  in  the  fall,  when  the  new  wood  is 
killed  by  the  frost;  while  young,  it  is  best  to  protect  the 
tree  during  winter  with  branches  of  evergreens.  I  have 
found  that  young  trees  will  mature  their  fruit  and  wood 
much  more  perfectly  and  better  endure  the  winter,  if  the 
young  shoots  are  broken  off  at  the  ends,  and  if  all  fruit 
forming  after  that  is  removed,  and  no  more  growth  is 
permitted  after  the  middle  of  September. 

As  a  general  rule,  however,  with  the  fig,  the  more  it  is 
pruned  the  less  is  the  crop.  This  does  not  apply  to  root 
pruning. 

If  from  too  rank  growth  of  wood  the  tree  drops  its 
fruit,  cut  off  all  the  roots  that  project  more  than  half  the 
length  of  the  branches.  This  may  be  done  at  any  time 
during  winter. 

Dark-Colored  Varieties. 

Brunswick. — Fruit  very  large,  long,  pyriform,  with  an 
oblique  apex;  eye  depressed;  stalk  short  and  thick;  skin 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  501 

pale  green,  tinged  with  yellow  in  the  shade,  dull  brown- 
ish-red in  the  sun,  and  sprinkled  with  pale  brown  specks; 
flesh  reddish-brown,  pinkish  at  the  centre,  semi-trans- 
parent, rich,  sweet,  and  high  flavored.  Wood  of  strong 
growth,  and  very  hardy. 

Brown  Turkey. — Fruit  large,  oblong  or  pyrif orm ;  skin 
dark  brown,  covered  with  thick  blue,  bloom;  flesh  red 
and  delicious.  Said  to  be  very  hard  and  prolific.  This  is 
one  of  the  best  varieties  grown. 

Blue  Genoa. — Leaflets  narrow,  and  the  leaf  seven- 
lobed;  fruit  large,  long,  obovate,  tapering  to  the  stalk, 
which  is  slender;  skin  almost  black, 
glossy,  covered  with  purple  bloom; 
flesh  bright  red,  of  excellent  flavor. 
This  continues  to  bear  fruit  abun- 
dantly until  frost,  and,  like  the  Bruns- 
wick, is  indispensable. 

Celestial. — Fruit  quite  small, 
pyriform;  stalk  slender;  skin  very 
thin,  dark  colored,  and  covered  with 
purple  bloom;  flesh  light  red,  and  of 
delicious  flavor. 

In  dry  weather  the  fruit  hangs  on 

J  *  Fig.  194— Celestial, 

the  tree  until  it  shrivels,  improving  in 

sweetness  and  flavor.  Trees  grow  quite  large,  and  are 
very  productive,  yielding  constantly  from  July  to  Octo- 
ber.   Leaves  five-lobed.   Very  hardy. 

White,  Yellow,  and  Green  Varieties. 

Lemon  White,  or  Common  White. — Fruit  turbinate, 
flattened;  stalk  short;  skin  pale  yellowish-green;  flesh 
white  and  sweet,  not  high  flavored.  Ripens  quite  early, 
and  is  a  good  bearer.  Its  color  renders  it  a  favorite  for 
preserving. 


502 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


The  following  additional  varieties  have  also  been  found 
to  bo  especially  desirable  figs:  Green  Ischia  (White 
Ischia  or  White  Italian),  Black  Ischia. 

Marketing. — The  usual  method  of  shipping  the  fig  is 


Fig.  195— Lemon  Fig. 

in  the  dried  form,  packed  in  small  fig  boxes.     The  plan 
for  drying  is  given  above. 

GOOSEBERRY.— (Ttibes  oxyacanthoides.) 

The  Gooseberry,  like  the  Currant,  is  a  native  of  Europe. 
Green,  it  is  used  for  pies,  tarts,  and  puddings;  ripe,  it  is 
a  very  agreeable  dessert  fruit.     It  is  more  impatient  of 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  503 

heat  than  the  currant,  and  cannot  be  expected  to  thrive 
except  among  the  mountains.  It  is  like  the  currant,  pro- 
pagated from  cuttings,  likes  the  same  soil  and  treatment 
generally,  even  in  the  Northern  States,  and  in  our  moun- 
tain region  the  fruit  is  liable  to  mildew,  the  foreign  varie- 
ties being  much  more  subject  to  it  than  the  native 
varieties. 

Houghton's  Seedling,  Downing's  Seedling,  Pale  Red, 
and  Red  Jacket  are  the  best  native  varieties  we  have 
seen.  Champion  is  recommended  by  the  Division  of 
Pomology  as  especially  desirable  in  Eastern  Texas. 
Chautauqua,  of  the  Grassularia  species,  has  also  been 
grown  successfully  in  Eastern  Texas.  Woods'  earth,  or 
leaf  mould,  aud  ashes,  are  the  best  manures  for  both  the 
currant  and  gooseberry  that  we  have  tried. 

Marketing. — Pick  green,  but  when  fully  grown,  before 
the  coloring  of  the  ripe  condition  begins  to  show.  Pack  in 
baskets. 

THE  GRAPE.— (  Vitis.) 

The  vine  was  one  of  the  first  plants  brought  into  culti- 
vation. The  foreign  grapes  are  all  varieties  of  Vitis  vini- 
fcra,  and  came  originally  from  Asia.  Of  native  grapes, 
we  have  Vitis  Labrusca,  of  which  Isabella,  Catawba,  Con- 
cord, Diana,  Hartford  Prolific,  and  many  others,  are 
varieties;  Vitis  Bour'quiniana  and  V.  aestivalis,  which 
include  the  wild  Summer  and  the  Frost  Grape.  Of  the 
cultivated  varieties,  the  Herbemont,  Lenoir,  and  others 
of  the  same  class;  Vitis  rot  audi folia,  which  includes  the 
wild  Muscadine,  or  Bullace,  of  the  South,  and  the  Scup- 
pernong. 

Our  American  grapes  are  seedlings  from  the  wild  varie- 
ties, removed  some  one,  two,  and  three  generations  from 
the  original  type.  Foreign  grapes  do  not  succeed  in  our 
climate  in  open  air  or  out-door  cultivation.  All  the  foreign 


504  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

varieties  do  well  both  North  and  South,  in  cold  graperies, 
under  glass. 

The  grape  is  a  cooling  and  refreshing  fruit  of  the 
highest  excellence;  green,  it  is  used  for  pies  and  tarts; 
when  ripe,  it  is  a  nutritious  and  most  delicious  dessert 
fruit,  and  is  also  used  for  preserving  and  jellies.  The 
dried  fruit,  or  raisins,  are  employed  extensively  for  the 
dessert,  and  in  many  preparations  of  cookery.  The  leaves 
are  an  elegant  garnish  to  other  table  fruits.  But  the  chief 
product  of  the  grape  is  wine,  which  is  superior  to  that 
made  of  any  other  fruit. 

Large  quantities  of  wine  are  now  made  in  the  United 
States,  more  especially  in  California,  where  most  of  the 
foreign  varieties  succeed.  In  the  Southern  States  vine- 
yard culture  has  proved  a  failure  with  all  derived  from 
the  Labrusca  and  Aestivalis  species.  After  one  or  two 
fair  crops  the  vines  become  stunted  and  unfruitful,  or  if 
stimulated  by  extra  culture  and  manuring,  both  vines 
and  fruit  mildew  and  rot.  There  are  but  very  few  varie- 
ties which  can  be  depended  upon  with  anything  approach- 
ing certainty. 

Since  the  great  development  in  the  methods  of  spray- 
ing and  treatment  of  fungus  diseases,  the  statement  made 
by  Mr.  White  in  the  last  paragraph  must  be  consider- 
ably modified.  Many  varieties  of  the  V.  Labrusca  have 
been  tested  during  the  past  ten  years  by  the  agricultural 
experiment  stations  in  the  South,  and  the  results  have 
been  highly  satisfactory.  Mr.  AVhite  made  the  above 
statement  more  than  forty  years  ago,  when  our  knowl- 
edge concerning  fungus  diseases  and  their  treatment  was 
exceedingly  limited,  but  since  the  establishment  of  the 
experiment  stations  so  much  activity  has  been  manifested 
among  the  botanists  and  horticulturists  to  overcome 
fungus  and  insect  attacks  on  the  grapes,  many  of  the 
varieties  which  failed  during  Mr.  White's  day  are  now 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


505 


being  successfully  grown  in  many  of  the  prominent  vine- 
yards throughout  the  South.  For  spraying  formulae  and 
methods  of  application  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  chap- 
ter devoted  to  that  subject. 

The  grape  is  planted  by  the  vine-growers  on  level 
ground,  in  rows  ten  feet  apart  and  eight  feet  in  the  row, 
but  on  hillsides  a  less  distance  may  be  adopted.  The  vine- 


Fig.  196— Catawba  Grape. 


yard  is  laid  off  with  a  line,  and  a  stake  put  down  where 
each  vine  is  to  grow;  then  a  broad  hole,  a  foot  deep,  is 
dug,  in  which  are  placed  two  cuttings,  six  or  eight  inches 
apart  at  the  bottom,  in  a  slanting  position,  but  with  the 
top  eyes  only  about  an  inch  apart,  and  even  with  the  sur- 
face. Throw  in  a  shovelful  of  well-decayed  leaf  mould, 
that  the  cuttings  may  strike  freely.  Cover  with  an  inch 
of  charcoal  dust,  or  light  mould,  when  the  cuttings  are 
planted.     The  cuttings  should  be  short-jointed  and  well 


506  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

ripened,  each  cutting  having  about  four  eyes,  or  buds. 
Cut  thein  off  close  to  the  lower  joint,  and  about  an  inch 
above  the  upper.  The  earth  should  be  pressed  closely 
about  the  cuttings.  The  best  time  for  putting  them  out 
is  the  last  of  November  or  December.  The  linest  vines 
are  raised  from  cuttings  planted  where  they  are  to  re- 
main. Being  undisturbed  by  removal,  they  are  more 
thrifty  and  long-lived.  Remove  all  the  cuttings  but  one, 
if  more  than  one  succeeds,  and  use  them  to  replace  where 
others  have  failed.  During  the  summer,  keep  the  ground 
clean  and  light,  by  repeated  hoeings,  and  pull  off  super- 
fluous shoots,  leaving  but  one  or  two  to  grow  at  first,  and 
one  eventually. 

In  fertilizing  the  grape  the  fact  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  plant  requires  a  large  per  cent,  of  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid,  and,  during  the  fruiting  season,  a  small 
application  of  nitrogenous  manure  may  be  applied;  not 
enough,  however,  to  cause  a  too  rapid  development  of 
canes  to  the  detriment  of  the  fruit-bearing  powers.  Mr. 
Starnes,  the  horticulturist  of  the  Georgia  Experiment 
Station,  recommends  the  following  formula  for  a  good 
grape  fertilizer: 

Cotton-seed   meal 1,000  pounds. 

High-grade  acid  phosphate 500  pounds. 

Kainit 500  pounds. 

'  2,000  pounds. 

"  The  fertilizer  should  be  used  at  the  rate  of  two  pounds 
per  vine — one-half  the  amount,  or  one  pound  to  be  mixed 
with  the  second  layer  of  dirt  excavated  from  the  holes. 
This  pile  or  mound  being  used  to  fill  the  holes  after  the 
top  soil  has  been  sifted  around  the  roots  of  the  plant,  the 
fertilizer  does  not  come  into  immediate  and  direct  con- 
tact with  the  young  rootlets;  but  as  it  becomes  soluble 
is  carried  down  in  a  dissolved  and  assimilable  state.  The 
rest  of  the  fertilizer  should  be  applied  interculturally  at 


FKUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  507 

the  time  of  either  the  first  or  second  working — preferably 
the  latter.  Drill  it  on  both  sides  of  the  row  with  a  fer- 
tilizer horn,  covering  with  a  cultivator  or  scrape. 

"  The  formula  for  the  second  year  might  be  appro- 
priately constructed  as  follows: 

Any  standard,  complete  fertilizer 100  pounds. 

Cotton-seed  meal 30  pounds. 

Kainit 50  pounds. 

Acid  phosphate  (high  grade) 20  pounds. 

200  pounds. 

"  The  third  year  the  vines  will  come  into  bearing,  and 
the  object  of  the  grower  from  this  time  on  will  be  to  ob- 
tain fruit,  not  wood.  This  latter  will  take  care  of  itself. 
Phosphoric  acid  and  potash  must  be  supplied  in  abun- 
dance, and  hence  for  a  permanent  formula  for  the  third 
and  subsequent  years  it  will  be  well  to  use  the  following: 

High-grade  acid  phosphate 900  pounds. 

Kainit 900  pounds. 

Cotton-seed   meal 200  pounds. 

2,000  pounds. 

"  The  above  is  a  low-grade  fertilizer  and  should  be  ap- 
plied as  before,  at  the  rate,  however,  of  three  pounds  per 
vine,  instead  of  two." 

The  training  and  pruning  of  the  grape  vine  are  essen- 
tial to  perfect  fruit  development  and  convenience  in 
gathering  the  crop.  There  are  excellent  works  in  exist- 
ence fully  devoted  to  this  subject,  and  which  explain 
clearly  the  modus  operandi.  The  reader  is  advised  to  study 
such  books  if  a  vineyard  of  large  dimensions  is  contem- 
plated; but,  to  assist  those  persons  who  have  not  the 
opportunity  to  examine  such  works,  and  who  desire  to 
grow  grapes  on  a  limited  scale,  the  following  general  in- 
struction is  given.  The  material  used  in  the  preparation 
of    what    follows    on    pruning    and    training    has    been 


508  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

liberally  drawn  from  the  writings  of  Professor  E.  G. 
Lodeman,  late  horticulturist  of  Cornell  University  Ex- 
periment Station;  Professor  L.  II.  Bailey,  of  the  same 
institution,  and  Mr.  Hugh  N.  Starnes,  horticulturist  of 
the  Georgia  Experiment  Station. 

For  a  better  understanding  of  the  terms  used  the  fol- 
lowing definitions  are  given: 

Shoot. — The  growth  of  wood  less  than  one  year  old. 

Cane. — Mature  shoots  of  one  year's  growth. 

Arm. — Mature  wrood  stems  of  three  years'  and  more 
growth. 

Spur. — A  shortened  or  pruned  cane,  generally  bearing 
only  from  one  to  four  buds. 

"  The  operation  of  pruning  the  vine  is  performed  for 
the  sole  purpose  of  removing  such  wood  as  will  not  bear, 
or  such  as  is  supposed  to  interfere  with  the  production  of 
the  finest  crop  of  fruit  that  the  plant  is  able  to  mature. 
Its  primary  object,  therefore,  is  to  reduce  the  amount  of 
bearing  wood,  and  thereby  thin  the  fruit  so  that  the  roots 
of  the  vine  are  not  taxed  beyond  their  capacity. 

"All  the  fruit  is,  of  course,  borne  upon  the  shoots  which 
grow  from  the  buds  now  found  upon  the  canes;  the  canes, 
therefore,  must  be  removed,  and  not  the  older  wood,  for 
the  latter  serves  as  the  framework  upon  which  the  canes 
are  maintained. 

"  In  cutting  away  the  canes,  all  wrood  which  has  not 
properly  matured  should  be  removed,  and  those  shoots 
which  have  made  an  excessive  growth,  forming  i  bull 
canes,'  are  also  undesirable.  The  medium-sized,  short- 
jointed,  and  well-matured  wood  is  to  be  preferred,  and 
such  wood  only.  Yet  some  of  this  well  developed  wood 
must  also  be  sacrificed,  until  the  amount  allowed  to  re- 
main upon  the  plant  is  reduced  to  the  proper  proportion. 
Assuming  that  the  plant  can  mature  the  fruit  produced 
by  twenty-four  buds  (the  number  of  buds  left  may  vary 


FRUITS VARIETIES   AND    CULTURE.  509 

from  two  to  fifty  or  more),  about  thirty  buds  could  be 
allowed  to  develop.  These  should  be  uuiformly  dis- 
tributed according  to  the  system  of  training  employed; 
they  may  be  left  upon  five  canes,  each  cane  having  six 
buds,  or  the  distribution  may  be  varied  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. But  such  is  in  general  the  method  adopted 
in  the  vineyard  for  estimating  the  proper  amount  of  bear- 
ing wood  to  leave  upon  each  cane.  As  a  result  of  such 
systematic  pruning,  the  fruit  from  the  vine  is  larger  and 
more  fair;  it  is  also  produced  more  regularly,  since  the 
maturing  of  too  heavy  a  crop  weakens  the  vine  so  that 
it  is  unable  to  mature  even  an  average  amount  of  fruit 
the  following  year.  A  vine  properly  pruned  and  fertilized 
should  bear  about  the  same  amount  of  fruit  each  year 
from  the  time  it  comes  into  full  bearing,  A  secondary 
benefit  derived  from  pruning  is  the  reduced  stature  of  the 
plant.  This  allows  more  vines  to  be  set  upon  a  given 
piece  of  land,  and  it  enables  the  work  of  cultivating, 
spraying  and  harvesting  to  be  performed  much  more 
easily  and  profitably. 

"  Training,  on  the  other  hand,  is  almost  wholly  a  mat- 
ter of  convenience.  It  does  not  affect  the  strength  of  the 
vine  or  the  value  of  the  crop  in  any  essential  particular. 
The  training  of  a  vine  refers  to  the  disposal  or  arrange- 
ment of  the  various  parts  of  the  vine  after  pruning  has 
taken  place.  The  method  of  training  adopted  determines 
the  operator  to  leave  certain  growths  in  certain  portions, 
not  because  more  or  better  fruit  is  expected,  but  for  the 
reason,  perhaps,  that  the  fruit  may  be  harvested  with 
greater  ease;  that  a  laborious  operation  may  be  wholly 
dispensed  with,  or  that  there  may  be  less  danger  to  the 
maturing  crop  from  the  winds  or  other  natural  agencies. 
The  method  of  training  adopted  by  a  vineyardist  is 
largely  the  result  of  personal  preference,  or  of  education, 
although  soil  and  variety  are  important  factors  in  the 


510  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

selection  of  the  system.  The  health  and  vigor  of  the 
vines  are  rarely  affected  by  the  method  in  which  it  is 
trained,  and  although  some  system  of  training  must  be 
adopted  in  every  vineyard,  still  altogether  too  much 
weight  has  been  laid  by  most  horticultural  writers  upon 
the  particular  merits  of  the' various  systems,  while  the 
actual  ruinous  effects  of  bad  pruning  have  not  always 
been  sufficiently  emphasized.  A  vine  properly  trained  is 
desirable,  but  a  properly  pruned  vine  is  essential  to  the 
highest  success. 

"  1.  The  amount  of  fruit  which  a  vine  can  bear  and 
mature  in  the  highest  perfection  is  limited;  when  this 
limit  is  exceeded  the  fruit  deteriorates. 

"  2.  Upon  the  fruit  the  effect  of  overproduction  is  to 
reduce  the  size  of  the  berries  and  of  the  clusters,  and 
probably  also  to  impair  the  quality;  the  vines  make  a 
poor  growth,  the  foliage  is  small,  and  the  vigor  of  the 
plant  is  generally  reduced.  When  a  vine  has  been  allowed 
to  overbear,  especially  when  it  is  young,  years  may  some- 
times be  required  before  a  vine  returns  to  its  normal 
condition. 

"  3.  A  plant  which  is  carrying  less  fruit  than  it  is  capa- 
ble of  maturing  generally  produces  a  very  heavy  foliage 
and  an  excess  of  wood. 

"  4.  All  the  fruit  of  the  vine  in  any  one  year  is  borne 
upon  the  shoots  of  that  year,  which  grow  from  the  canes 
produced  the  preceding  year;  and  since  the  number  of 
clusters  borne  upon  a  single  shoot  is  fairly  constant  (vary- 
ing generally  from  one  to  three),  the  number  of  buds  left 
upon  a  vine  when  it  is  pruned,  determines  with  consider- 
able accuracy  the  number  of  clusters  which  the  vine  will 
possess.  Usually  more  buds  are  allowed  to  remain  than 
wTould  be  safe  if  each  one  were  sure  to  be  perfect. 

"  5.  The  position  of  the  bearing  wood  upon  a  vine  is 
of  secondary  importance  as  regards  the  effect  upon  the 


FKUITS VAKIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


511 


quantity  and  quality  of  the  fruit;  but  as  a  frequent 
change  or  renewal  of  the  entire  top  of  the  vine  appears 
to  be  desirable,  the  young  bearing  wood  should  be  as  near 
the  root  of  the  plant  as  circumstances  will  allow.  When 
the  important  relation  of  these  essential  points  to  success- 
ful grape  growing  is  thoroughly  considered,  the  secondary 
character  of  training  of  the  vine  becomes  apparent." 


Fig.  197— Overhead  Kniffin,  or  Caywood  System. 


There  are  many  systems  of  training  the  vines,  all  of 
which  may  be  grouped  into  three  classes,  depending  upon 
the  direction  in  which  the  shoots  are  made  to  grow. 

1.  The  upright  system. 

2.  The  pendant,  or  drooping,  system. 

3.  The  horizontal  system. 


The  first,  or  upright  system,  is  well  illustrated  in  the 
method  adopted  in  some  sections  of  the  South,  where  the 


512 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Fig.  198— Horizontal  Arm  Spur  System. 


Fig.  199— Continuous  Arbci  System— Pruned  Vines. 


FKU1TS VARIETIES    AND    CULTUKE.  513 

vines  are  trained  to  posts.  The  horizontal-arm  spur,  or 
Fuller  system,  is  another  illustration  of  the  upright 
method.  The  method  of  training  by  arbor  is  the  horizon- 
tal system,  and  it  has  its  advantages  as  well  as  disad- 
vantages. The  seuppernong  is  generally  cultivated  in 
this  way.  The  overhead  Kniffin  is  a  representation  of  the 
drooping  system,  and  this  system  is  very  popular  through 
many  sections  of  the  South. 

Where  grapes  are  cultivated  on  a  small  scale  it  pays 
the  cultivator  to  bag  the  fruit,  the  recompense  coming  in 
the  shape  of  superior  fruit,  and  protection  against  the 
attacks  of  insects  and  disease. 


33 


514 


GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 


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FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


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516 


GAKDENIAG    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Leading  Market  Varieties  of  Grapes. 
Bertrand,  Diamond  (Moore's), 

Concord,  Herbeinont, 

Brighton,  Ives, 

Delaware,  Niagara, 

Diana,  Perkins. 

Leading-  Wine  Grapes. 
RED. 

Bertrand,  Herbeinont, 

Clinton,  Ives, 

Concord,  Lenoir, 

Cyntkiana,  Norton's  Virginia, 

Thomas. 


Catawba, 

Delaware, 

Elvira,* 


WHITE. 


Missouri  Riesling, 


Niagara, 
Noah, 
Scuppernong. 


Wine. — There  is  no  more  art  or  mystery  in  making- 
wine  than  in  making  cider.  The  grapes  are  crushed  be- 
tween wooden  rollers,  which  run  sufficiently  near  each 
other  to  crush  the  grapes,  but  not  the  seeds. 

To  make  red  wine,  the  crushed  grapes  should  stand 
about  twenty-four  hours  before  pressing,  so  as  to  extract 
a  portion  of  the  coloring  matter  from  the  skins,  when  they 
may  be  pressed  by  means  of  an  ordinary  screw  press.  To 
each  gallon  of  juice  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  good  clari- 
fied sugar  must  be  added.  If  made  from  the  pure  juice 
of  the  grape,  the  wine  will  be  thin,  weak,  poor,  acid,  and 
astringent  stuff,  not  better  than  hard  cider.    All  the  best 


*  This  grape  makes  the  famous  San  Louis  Sauternes  Florida  wine. 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AXD    CULTURE. 


517 


foreign  wines  have  a  large  portion  of  brandy  added;  such 
as  the  Madeira  and  Sherry  have  near  twenty  per  cent.  In 
February  or  March  following  the  wine  should  be  racked 
off  into  clean  casks,  if  intended  for  still  wine,  or  bottled, 
if   for  foaming  wine.    At  the  time  of   bottling  a  table- 


Fig.  200— The  Scuppernong. 

spoonful  of  Nu.  1  clarified  sugar  must  be  put  into  each 
bottle,  which  should  be  well  corked.  Some  recommend 
rock  candy  to  be  added.  We  have  found  nothing  better 
than  good  clarified  sugar. 

The  Scuppernong. — We  consider  this  very  peculiar 
grape  one  of  the  greatest  boons  to  the  South.     It  has 


518  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH, 

very  little  resemblance  to  any  of  the  grapes  of  the  other 
sorts.  It  is  a  rampant  grower,  and  requires  little,  if  any, 
care  or  culture;  grows  well  in  any  soil  south  of  the 
Potomac  river;  has  none  of  the  shaggy  bark  peculiar  to 
other  vines,  and  bears  only  from  the  old,  and  not  from  the 
current  shoots,  as  do  other  grapes.  The  leaves  are  cor- 
date, or  heart-shaped,  coarsely  serrate,  smooth  on  both 
upper  and  under  surfaces.  It  blooms  from  the  loth  to 
the  last  of  June,  and  ripens  its  fruit  the  last  of  September 
and  beginning  of  October.  It  has  no  diseases,  in  wood, 
leaf,  or  fruit,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  fails  to  produce  a  heavy 
crop.    We  have  never  known  it  to  fail. 

To  this  type  of  grape  also  belong  the  following  men- 
tioned in  the  table  on  a  preceding  page :  Flowers,  Tender- 
pulp  and  Thomas,  which  belong  with  the  Scuppernong 
to  Vitis  rot undi folia.  The  first  three  produce  black,  and 
the  last  a  yellow-white  fruit.  These  grapes  are  peculiarly 
southern  in  origin  and  adaptability. 

Brilliant  (Lubr. -Hyhr.).— Originated  by  T.  V.  Munson, 
Denison,  Texas.  The  result  of  a  cross  between  Lindley 
and  Delaware  effected  in  1883.  Vines  hardy  and  vigorous; 
bunches  above  medium,  shouldered,  compact;  berries 
large,  fully  the  size  of  Concord,  resembling  Delaware  in 
color;  skin  thin,  but  quite  firm;  flesh  tender  and  very 
juicy;  flavor  rich,  sprightly,  equal  to  Delaware.  This  is 
thought  by  many  to  be  the  best  of  the  grapes  originated 
by  Professor  Munson.  The  large  berries,  with  their 
superior  quality  renders  it  one  of  the  best  grapes  for  table 
use,  and  the  Brilliant  should  be  included  in  every 
amateur  collection.  It  will  probably  prove  valuable  as  a 
market  variety. 

Niagara  (Labr.  X). — Originated  by  Hoag  &  Clark, 
Lockport,  New  York,  in  1872 ;  a  cross  of  Concord  and  Cas- 
sady;  vines  very  vigorous  and  very  productive;  bunches 
large,  compact,  sometimes  shouldered ;  berry  large,  round- 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  519 

ish;  pale  green  in  color,  changing  to  pale  yellow  when 
fully  ripe;   skin  thin,  tough;   flesh   tender,  juicy,  sweet; 


Fig.  201— Brilliant  (after  R.  L.  Watts). 

similar  to  Concord  in  quality,  ripening  about  with  Con- 
cord.   The  Niagara  is  largely  cultivated  in  Tennessee.    It 


520 


<;aki>k\i.\g   for   tiii-:   south. 


is  far  from  first  class  in  quality,  but  the  beauty  of  both 
bunches  and  berries,  vigor  and  great  productiveness  of 


rtti^B 


Fig.  202— Niagara   (after  R.  L.  Watts). 

vines,  render  it  a  special  favorite,  and  it  leads  all  other 
white  grapes  in  quantity  grown  for  market. 

Diamond    (Labr.X). — Originated     by    Jacob    Moore, 


FETTITS VARIETIES    A^'D    CULTURE. 


521 


Attica,  New  York,  from  seedling  of  Concord  fertilized  by 
Iona;  vine  vigorous  and  productive;  bunch  large,  coni- 


Fig.  203— Diamond    (after  R.   L.   Watts). 

pact,  shouldered;  often  double  shouldered;  berries  above 
medium  size,  round,  greenish-white;  skin  thin,  rather 
tough;  flesh  tender,  juicy,  of  high  quality.     We  consider 


522 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


this  one  of  the  best  white  grapes.    It  is  well  adapted  both 
for  market  purposes  and  home  culture.    Ripe  August  5th. 


Fig.  204— Herbemont  (after  R.  L.  Watts). 

Diamond  is  recommended  by  leading  grape-growers  of 
this  country. 

Herbemont  (Aest.)  Synonym,  Warren;  Herbemonte's 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AXD    CULTURE. 


523 


Maderia,    Warrenton,    Neil. — Origin    unknown;    a   most 
vigorous   grower   and    exceedingly  productive;  bunches 


Fig.  205— Brighton  (after  R.  L.  Watts). 


very  large,  long,  shouldered  and  usually  compact;  berries 
small,  black,  with  a  blue  bloom;  skin  thin;  flesh  tender, 
very  juicy,  rich,  sprightly;  quality  very  good.     Ripe  the 


524 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


latter  part  of  September;  a  very  valuable  late  grape  for 
home  use. 

Brighton  {Lair:  X  Yin.). — Originated  by  Jacob  Moore, 


Fig.  206— Wlnchell  latter  R.  L.  Watts). 


Brighton,  New  York;  a  cross  between  Concord  and  Diana- 
Hamburg;  vine  hardy,  vigorous;  canes  medium  to  long- 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  525 

jointed;  foliage  abundant;  leaves  large;  bunch  medium 
to  large;  moderately  compact,  shouldered;  "berries 
medium  to  large,  round,  light  red  at  first,  changing  to  a 
dark  crimson  or  maroon  when  fully  matured,  sometimes 
almost  black,  and  covered  with  an  abundant  lilac  bloom. 
The  berries  adhere  well  to  the  peduncle;  skin  thin  but 
tough;  flesh  tender,  slight  pulp,  sweet,  juicy,  slightly 
aromatic;  very  slightly  vinous,  and  of  very  good  quality 
for  an  early  grape.  It  has  its  best  flavor  when  it  first 
ripens,  but  becomes  pasty  and  looses  its  sprightly  flavor 
when  full  ripe.'1 — A.  J.  Downing.  Ripe  August  4th;  vines 
very  productive.  It  yields  the  largest  crops  when  planted 
with  other  varieties  to  assist  in  fertilization.  This  variety 
is  largely  grown  in  the  Eastern  States,  where  it  is  the 
leading  table  grape. 

Winchell  (Labr.),  or  Green  Mountain. — A  chance 
seedling  found  on  the  slopes  of  the  Green  Mountains  of 
Vermont;  bunches  above  medium,  compact,  well  should- 
ered; berries  medium,  round,  greenish-white;  skin  thin, 
quite  tender;  flesh  tender,  very  sweet,  rich,  pleasant; 
quality  very  good.  Ripe  July  30th.  Eminent  grape- 
growers  throughout  the  country  have  made  many  compli- 
mentary remarks  concerning  the  Winchell,  or  Green 
Mountain  grape.  We  consider  it  probably  the  best  white 
grape  in  our  vineyard  for  the  home  collection,  and  see  no 
reason  why  it  should  not  be  highly  profitable  for  market 
purposes. 

Delaware. — This  is  one  of  the  best  grapes  cultivated 
in  the  South.  The  fruit  is  rather  small,  round,  of  a  red 
color  and  delightful  flavor.  It  is  one  of  the  standard 
grapes,  and  is  popular  wherever  grow 

Marketing. — The  packing  must  be  made  so  firm  that 
there  will  be  no  shifting  of  the  fruit  in  the  basket.  All  de- 
fective and  green  or  overripe  grapes  must  be  cut  from  the 


526 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


bunches  by  scissors,  and  the  bunches  must  be  carefully 
assorted.    The  5  and  10-pound  baskets  are  used  usually 


Fig.  207 — Delaware. 


for  shipping  grapes  to  markets.  Handle  the  fruit  as  little 
as  possible,  so  as  to  avoid  injuring  the  "  bloom/'  which 
makes  the  grape  look  so  attractive  and  fresh  when  ex- 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  527 

posed  for  sale.  Turn  the  stems  down  as  the  bunches  are 
placed  in  the  basket  and  fill  slightly  above  the  top,  so  that 
when  the  cover  is  placed  on  the  fruit  will  be  firmly 
pressed  into  a  secure  position.  This  method  of  packing- 
will  insure  a  stemless  surface  when  opened,  and  fruit  will 
be  better  preserved  in  transportation. 

GTJAVAS.— (Psidium.) 

There  are  several  species  and  a  number  of  varieties  of 
this  delicious  fruit.  The  most  important  and  those  com- 
manding popular  favor  in  Southern  Florida,  where  the 
plant  attains  its  best  growth,  are  Apple  (P.  guajava), 
Common  Guava  (P.  guajava),  Chinese  or  Mexican  (P. 
lucid mn),  Cattley  or  Strawberry  (P.  cattleianum),  White 
Winter  (P.  guajava). 

The  flowers  are  white,  fragrant,  and  are  in  great  num- 
bers on  the  plant;  the  fruit  is  round,  varying  in  size  from 
one  to  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter;  the  color  of  the 
fruit  is  either  red,,  yellow  or  green;  the  flesh  is  crimson 
or  yellow,  and  the  flavor  subacid,  with  a  pleasant  taste. 
The  great  objection  to  the  fruit  is  the  large  number  of 
seeds  it  contains,  in  some  instances  as  many  as  four 
hundred. 

The  guava  makes  an  excellent  evaporated  fruit,  and, 
if  the  number  of  seeds  can  be  reduced  by  selection  and 
cultivation,  it  will  become  an  important  addition  to  the 
list  of  commercial  fruits.  It  is  highly  esteemed  for  des- 
serts, cooking  and  preserving  and  making  into  jellies. 
It  is  propagated  by  seeds,  cuttings  and  layers.  The  young- 
plant  begins  bearing  when  three  years  old,  and  some- 
times earlier.  It  attains  the  size  of  a  tree  only  in  South- 
ern Florida,  while  farther  north  it  is  more  like  a  shrub. 


c 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  529 

LOQUAT  OR  JAPANESE  MEDLAR. 
(Eriobotrya  or  Photinia  Japonica.) 

This  plant  belongs  to  the  Rosaceae  family,  and  was 
introduced  into  this  country  a  few  years  ago  from  China 
or  Japan.  Its  popularity  is  steadily  increasing  in  the 
orange  regions  of  Florida  and  Louisiana,  where  it  is  culti- 
vated successfully.  The  fruit  forms  in  clusters  from 
white  flowers  of  remarkable  fragrance;  it  is  small,  one  to 
one  and  a  half  inch  in  diameter,  of  a  creamy  yellow  color, 
and  in  shape  resembling  a  plum.  The  quality  is  subacid, 
juicy  and  refreshing.     Ripens  from  February  to  May. 

Cultivation. — It  prefers  a  well-drained,  sandy  loam  soil 
with  a  clay  subsoil.  Plant  at  distances  adopted  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  peach.  The  propagation  is  generally 
by  seeds,  and  but  little  effort  has  beeu  put  forth  to  im- 
prove the  Loquat  by  selection,  although  it  seems  to  be 
susceptible  to  decided  change  when  judiciously  treated. 
The  stocks  used  for  its  propagation  should  be  some  plant 
belonging  to  the  Rosaceae  family. 

MANGOES.— ( M ang if era  Indica.) 
This  is  a  tropical  fruit  and  will  not  thrive  above  the 
latitude  where  thin  ice  forms.  It  is  grown  in  Southern 
Florida  for  home  use,  since  the  delicate  nature  of  the 
fruit  will  not  permit  of  shipping  to  any  great  distance. 
The  tree  is  large  and  spreading  with  lanceolate  leaves 
fully  seven  inches  long.  The  flowers  are  white  and 
grow  in  clusters  at  the  ends  of  the  branches.  The  fruit 
is  shaped  something  like  a  cucumber,  varying  in  color 
from  green  to  orange.  The  plant  grows  rapidly,  and, 
under  proper  treatment,  will  fruit  when  four  years 
old.  It  can  be  propagated  by  budding,  grafting  or  from 
the  seeds.  The  following  other  varieties  are  grown  in 
Florida: 
34 


• 

' : =) 

u^^^^^w^^t^7^ ' '  (^sS 

1 W'' 

.   Jii 

Pla'e  0— Pawpaw.     (Photo,  by  0.  R  Haven. 


•>  0)  Plate  10— Pawpaw  Section.     (Photo,  by  O.  P  Haven.) 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  531 

Common  Mangoes. — Originated  in  the  East  Indies; 
fruit  large,  reniform,  yellow  and  red  in  color;  quality  good 
and  ripens  in  summer.    The  tree  is  vigorous  and  prolific. 

Apricot. — Originated  in  East  Indies;  fruit  medium 
size,  kidney-shaped,  red  and  yellow  in  colors;  very  good 
flavor. 

Apple,  ok  No.  11. — Originated  in  West  Indies;  fruit 
large,  round,  yellow;  very  good  flavor.  A  vigorous  grower. 

MINOR  TROPICAL  FRUITS. 

Avocado  Pear  {rosea  gratissima). 
Cherimoya  (Anona  cherimolia). 
Custard  Apple  (Anonareticulata). 
Granadilla  (Passiflora  edulis). 
Hog  Plum  (Spoil dins  luted). 
Jamaica  Sorrel  (Hibiscus  sabdariffa). 
Manimee  Apple  (Lucuma  mammosa). 
Otaheite  Gooseberry  (Phyllanthus  distichus). 
Pawpaw  (Carica  papaya). 
Rose  Apple  (Eugenia  jumbos). 
Sapodilla  (Achras  sapota). 
Sour  Hop  (Anona  muricata). 
Spanish  Lime  (Melicocca  hijn</<t). 
Star  Apple  (Chrysophyllum  Cainito). 
Sugar  Apple  (Anona  squamosa). 
Tamarind  (Tamarindus  Tndica). 

In  speaking  of  these  minor  fruits  the  Florida  State 
Horticultural  Society,  in  its  catalogue  published  in  1897, 
says:  "None  of  these  are  raised  for  market  on  a  large 
scale,  but  all  are  desirable,  and  are  extensively  grown 
over  a  more  or  less  extended  area  in  the  more  tropical 
regions  of  the  State,  a  number  being  produced  in  consid- 
erable quantities  for  local  market  or  consumption.  A 
few,  like  the  Mammee  Apple,  Sapodilla    and    Avocada 


532  GARDENING    FOB    THE    SOUTH. 

Pear,  ship  well  and  find  ready  sale;  the  Avocada 
Pear,  has  brought  good  prices  in  the  New  York  market. 
Some,  like  the  foregoing,  the  Star  Apple  and  the  Hog 
Plum,  are  agreeable  to  most  palates  upon  first  acquaint- 
ance; others,  like  the  Sugar  Apple,  Cherimoya  and  Sour- 
sop,  which  are  much  esteemed  by  those  accustomed  to 
the  fruit,  require  an  acquired  taste  to  be  appreciated.  A 
number  are  grown  for  home  use,  almost  or  quite  exclu- 
sively, either  because  too  tender  to  transport,  like  the 
Sugar  Apple  and  Pawpaw,  or  for  their  value  for  culinary 
purposes;  of  the  latter,  the  Otaheite  Gooseberry  is  a 
valuable  acid  fruit  for  cooking  and  preserving.  The 
Jamaica  Sorrel  is  not  a  fruit  in  the  proper  sense  of  the 
term,  but  produces  a  pulpy  calyx,  which  makes  an  excel- 
lent substitute  for  cranberries.  The  acid  Soursop  is  used 
for  flavoring,  preparing  drinks,  etc.,  and  is  much  esteemed 
in  sickness.  The  Tamarind  bears  a  pod  with  a  pleasant 
acid  pulp  which,  preserved  in  sugar,  finds  ready  sale  in 
the  general  market." 

MULBERRY.— (Morus.) 

This  genus  includes  two  species  worthy  of  cultivation, 
both  hardy,  deciduous  trees,  ripening  their  fruits  in  May 
with  the  later  strawberries.  The  fruit  is  of  very  agree- 
able flavor,  and  of  abundant  subacid  juice.  An  agree- 
able wine  may  be  made  of  the  juice.  All  the  species  of 
Mulberry  are  of  the  easiest  culture,  and  are  generally  pro- 
pagated by  cuttings  of  the  branches  or  roots.  The  former 
should  be  shoots  of  the  last  season,  having  one  joint  of  old 
wrood;  they  may  be  three  feet  long,  and  buried  half  their 
length  in  the  soil.    The  tree  requires  little  or  no  pruning. 

The  soil  should  be  a  rich,  deep,  sandy  loam.  The  fruit 
falls  when  ripe;  hence,  wdien  the  tree  commences  bearing, 
the  surface  below  should  be  kept  in  short  turf,  that  the 
fruit  may  be  picked  from  the  clean  grass. 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  533 

Professor  L.  II.  Bailey,  of  Cornell  University,  makes 
the  following-  classification  of  the  mulberry: 

1.  The  White  Mulberry  group  (Morns  alba). 

(a)  Russian  Mulberry  (car.  Tartarica). 

(b)  Nervosa  Mulberry  (var.  Venosa). 

2.  The  Multicaulis  group  (Morns  latifolia). 

3.  The  Japanese  group  (Morns  Japonica). 

4.  The  Black  Mulberry  group  (Morns  nigra). 

5.  The  Bed  or  Native  Mulberry  group  {Moms  rubra), 
(a)  Lampasas  Mulberry  (var.  tomentosd). 

Black  Mulberry  (Moms  nigra)  is  a  native  of  Persia, 
and  is  a  slow-growing,  low-branched  tree,  with  large, 
tough  leaves,  often  tive-lobed,  producing  largo  and  deli- 
cious fruit,  frequently  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  and  an 
inch  across;  black,  and  fine  flavored.  Tree  a  very  poor 
grower. 

Red  Mulberry  (Moms  rubra)  is  a  native  of  our  woods; 
leaves  large,  rough,  and  generally  heart-shaped;  fruit  an 
inch  long,  sweet  and  pleasant,  but  inferior  to  the  black. 
The  vigorous  growth  and  fine  spreading  head  of  this 
variety  make  it  worthy  of  culture  as  an  ornamental  tree, 
it  is  the  most  tenacious  of  life  of  any  tree  we  have  ever 
seen.  Twenty-seven  years  since  we  dug  one  up  in  our 
garden,  and  annually  up  to  the  present  time  shoots  put  up 
from  fragments  left  in  the  ground,  and  thus  far  we  have 
been  unable  to  exterminate  it.  If  the  cherry  is  planted 
near  the  house,  and  the  Mulberry  a  little  more  distant, 
the  latter  will  often  attract  the  birds  from  the  former. 

The  varieties  recommended  for  the  South  are: 

Dowxixg's  Everbearing. — Originated  by  Charles 
Downing,  of  Newburgh,  New  York,  from  the  seed  of 
Morns  multicaulis.  Tree  very  vigorous  and  productive;  an 
estimable  variety,  and  surpassed  by  none  except  the  black 
English,  and  possessing  the  same  rich,  subacid  flavor.    It 


534 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


continues  in  bearing  a  long  time.  Fruit  one  and  a  quarter 
inch  long  and  nearly  a  half-inch  in  diameter.  Color, 
maroon,  or  intense  blue-black  at  full  maturity;  flesh  juicy, 
rich,  and  sugary,  with  a  sprightly  vinous  flavor. 

Hicks'  Everbearing. — This   mulberry   originated    in 
Georgia,  and  is  very  productive.     It  fruits  from  three  to 


Fig.  208— Black  Mulberry  Tree. 

four  months.  It  has  an  insipid,  sweet  taste,  but  is  an 
excellent  food  for  hogs  and  chickens.  This  tree  should 
be  grown  by  every  one  who  raises  poultry  on  an  extensive 
scale. 

Stubbs'  Mulberry. — Originated   in    Laurens   county, 
Georgia,  more  than  twenty  years  ago. 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  535 

ous  grower,  with  broad  foliage.  The  fruit  is  large,  black 
and  of  excellent  quality.  The  tree  remains  in  fruit  about 
two  months. 

NECTARINE. — (Persica  vulgaris,  var.  laais.) 

The  Nectarine  is  merely  a  peach  with  a  smooth  skin.  It 
is  impossible  to  distinguish  the  tree  from  the  peach  by  its 
leaf  and  flowers. 

Nectarines  usually  produce  nectarines  from  the  seed; 
but  the  B-oston  Nectarine  originated  from  a  peach-stone. 

The  tree  is  cultivated  and  pruned  like  the  peach,  and  is 
propagated  by  grafting  or  budding  on  peach  stocks.  The 
great  difficulty  in  raising  Nectarines  (and  the  same  is  true 
of  the  apricot  and  plum),  is  the  curculio.  The  smooth  skin 
of  these  fruits  offers  an  inviting  place  for  this  insect  to 
deposit  its  eggs.  The  injured  fruit  may  be  known  by  be- 
ing marked  with  a  small,  semi-circular  scar,  as  if  cut  by 
a  baby's  nail. 

It  is  useless  to  plant  either  the  Nectarine,  Apricot,  or 
Plum,  especially  in  sandy  soils,  unless  the  trees  are  daily 
jarred,  and  the  insects  collected  on  sheets  as  they  fall, 
and  immediately  destroyed.  A  limb  may  be  sawed  off  a 
tree,  and  the  stump  hit  a  few  smart  blows  with  a  mallet; 
if  gently  shaken,  the  insect  will  not  let  go  its  hold.  Or 
another  plan  is  to  plant  the  trees  by  themselves,  and 
admit  poultry  and  hogs  to  eat  the  fallen  fruit,  which  will, 
if  other  fruit  gardens  are  not  near,  protect  the  crop. 
Spraying  the  tree  as  soon  as  the  blossoms  fall  will  be 
more. effective;  but  not  certain.  For  formula  see  chapter 
devoted  to  spraying.  In  using  the  spraying  material  great 
care  must  be  exercised  so  that  the  leaves  and  tender  twigs 
will  not  be  injured  with  too  strong  arsenical  compounds. 
The  borer  infests  the  Nectarine  as  well  as  the  Peach. 
Aside  from  the  curculio.  the  nectarine  is  as  hardy  and 
easily  raised  as  the  peach,  though  scarcely  equal  to  the 


536  GARDENING    EOK    THE    SOUTH. 

best  peaches  in  flavor.     It  requires  the  same  soil  and 
treatment  as  the  peach.    The  best  varieties  are: 

Early  Violet. — Glands  reniform;  flowers  small,  fruit 
large,  roundish,  pale  yellowish-green,  with  a  purplish-red 
cheek,  mottled  with  brown;  flesh  whitish-red  at  the  stone, 
melting,  juicy,  and  delicious.    Ripens  July  20th. 

Elruoe. — Glands  reniform;  flowers  small;  fruit 
medium;  roundish  oval;  suture  slight;  skin  pale  green, 
with  deep  violet  or  blood-red  cheek,  and  minute  brown 
specks;  flesh  pale  green,  pale  red  at  the  stone;  melting, 
juicy,  and  rich;  stone  oval,  rough,  and  pale  colored. 
Ripens  July  25th. 

Downton. — Glands  reniform;  fruit  large,  roundish 
oval ;  skin  pale  green;  flesh  red  at  the  stone,  melting  and 
delicious.  Ripens  July  25th. 

Boston. — Glands  globose;  flowers  small;  fruit  large, 
roundish  oval;  skin  bright  yellow,  with  a  deep  red  cheek; 
flesh  yellow,  not  rich,  but  sweet  and  pleasant.  Ripens  last 
of  July.    (Clin g.) 

New  White. — Glands  reniform;  flowers  large;  fruit 
large,  nearly  round;  skin  white,  with  slight  tinge  of  red 
in  the  sun;  flesh  white,  tender,  juicy,  vinous,  and  rich; 
stone  small.   Ripens  August  1st. 

Stanwick. — A  European  variety;  skin' pale  greenish- 
white,  shaded  into  deep  violet  in  the  sun;  flesh  white, 
tender,  juicy,  and  rich;  sweet,  and  without  the  slightest 
prussic  acid  flavor.    Ripens  August  1st.   (Free.) 

NUTS. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  nuts  worthy  of  cultivation 
by  every  planter,  many  of  which  are  ornamental  shade 
trees,  besides  being  valuable  for  the  fruit  they  yield.  For 
convenience,  we  class  them  under  one  head. 


FEUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


537 


Chestnut  (Castanea). — The  Chestnut  is  a  very  large 
forest  tree,  and  common  to  both  continents.  The  Spanish 
Chestnut  or  Marron,  produces  a  very  large,  sweet  nut, 
and  is  propagated  by  grafting  on  our  common  chestnut. 
There  are  several  varieties  of  this,  of  which  "  Marron  de 


Fig  209— The  Burbank  'Early"  Chestnut. 
(Amer.  Gardening  ) 


From  Nature. 


Lyon  "  is  the  best.  It  will  bear  the  second  year  from  the 
graft.  Chestnuts  are  difficult  to  transplant  when  taken 
from  the  woods.  The  improved  varieties  are  much 
superior  to  the  wild  sorts.  The  chestnut  as  a  shade  tree 
is  very  effective  in  landscape  gardening.  It  is  stated  in 
a  circular  issued  by  the  Division  of  Pomology,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  that  "the  European 


ifew 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AXD    CULTURE. 


539 


Fig.  210. 

American  Chestnut. 


sweet  chestnut  (castanca  satica)  has  been  grafted  for  many 
years  in  France  and  England  upon  the  European  black 
oak  (quercus  robur),  using  young  seedlings  raised  by  plant- 
ing acorns  where  the  trees  are  to  remain  permanently.1" 
A  few  experiments  have  been  made 
recently  in  the  United  States  with 
a  degree  of  success,  using  the  chest- 
uut  oak  (quercus  primus)  as  a  stock. 
The  Common  Wild  American 
Chestnut  (castanca  dentata)  grows 
iu  the  mountains  and  the  hilly 
regions  of  the  South,  and  bears  its 
fruit  in  great  abundance.  The  nuts, 
however,  are  not  as  large  as  those 
produced  on  the  imported  varieties;  but  they  are 
sweeter.  The  native  chestnuts  have  been  greatly  im- 
proved by  transplanting  and  grafting,  and  by  careful  cul- 
tivation. The  demand  for  the  nuts  is  steadily  increasing. 
Large  Spanish  or  Marron  de  Lyon  (castanca  sativa). 
The  nuts  are  very  large,  but  not  as  sweet  as  the  Ameri- 
can. The  large  size  com- 
mand attention,  and  there 
is  a  better  market  for  them 
because  of  that  fact. 

Japan  Giant  or  Mam- 
moth (castanca  Japonica). — 
The  growth  from  the  seeds 
is   uncertain    as   to    results, 

Fig.  211-Spanish  Chestnut.  an(1    tbe   geedg  are  often   ^ 

reliable.  Grafting  is  the  only  sure  method  to  reproduce 
this  plant  in  perfection.  The  burr  generally  contains  as 
many  as  five  large  nuts.  The  trees  do  not  grow  tall,  but 
are  dwarf  in  habit. 

Chinquapin  (castanca  pumila). — This  is  a  shrub  gene- 
rally, but  it  sometimes  grows  to  the  size  of  a  tree.     It  is 


540 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


hardy  in  most  of  the  hilly  regions  of  the  Atlantic  States 
from  Virginia  to  Alabama.  The  nuts  are  small,  solitary 
in  the  burr,  of  a  beautiful  mahogany  color,  and  of  a  sweet 
flavor.  The  chinquapin  grows  wild,  and  but  little  effort 
has  been  exerted  to  improve  it  by  cultivation.  The  nuts 
find  their  way  into  the  local  markets  along  with  the  wild 
chestnuts. 

Shell-Bark  Hickory  (Hicoria  ovata). — This  tree  is 
found  in  fertile  soils  all  over  the  United  States,  producing 

the  common  thin-shelled, 
white  hickory  nut.  The 
tree  is  very  regular  and 
beautiful  for  ornamental 
purposes.  There  is  con- 
siderable difference  in  the 
size  and  flavor  of  the  nuts 
of  different  varieties.  It 
is  generally  cultivated  by 
planting  the  nuts  in  the 

Fig.  212- Japanese  Chestnut  (Castanea .  fall5        these       Should       be 

Japoniai).  slightly  covered  with  leaf 

mould. 

Filberts  {Corylus  Avellana)  are  generally  raised  from 
layers.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  sucker;  but  trained 
to  form  low  heads  near  the  ground,  which  should  be  kept 
tolerably  open  by  thinning  out  the  small  spray,  and  short- 
ening back  the  young  shoots  every  spring.  Of  the  varie- 
ties, 

Gqsford  is  a  large,  oblong  nut,  with  a  thin  shell,  and  of 
fine  flavor.     Prolific. 

White  Filbert. — Like  the  last,  but  with  a  light  yellow 
or  white  skin;  husk  long  and  tubular;  nuts  ovate. 

Lambert. — Nut  compressed,  large  and  oblong;  the 
kernel  has  a  rich  flavor.     Prolific. 

Purple  Filbert. — The  leaves  and  fruit  have  a  purple 
color.    A  good  varietv. 


FKUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


,11 


PECANS. — (llicoria  pecan.) 

This  tree  has  been  considerably  cultivated  by  orchard- 
ists  within  the  past  few  years,  and  in  many  sections  of  the 


Fig,  213— Paper  Shell  Pecan  Tree     (Large  tree  in  centre  of  picture. ) 

South  extensive  orchards  are  now  in  existence,  and  are 
yielding  fine  revenues  to  the  owners.  The  tree  reaches 
its  bearing  period  in  eight  to  ten  years  after  planting. 
The  character  of  soil  suitable  for  the  hickory  will  serve 


542 


GARDENING    FOK    THE    SOUTH. 


admirably  for  growing  the  pecan.  In  Florida  the  ques- 
tion of  growing  this  tree  has  long  since  been  satisfac- 
torily answered.  It  has  been  found  well  adapted  to  the 
soil  and  climate  of  that  State.  It  has  also  been  success- 
fully grown  for  many  years  in  Louisiana  and  Texas.  From 
these  States,  probably,  the  largest  quantity  reaches 
market.  In  the  making  of  an  orchard  it  is  best  to  plant 
one  to  two-year-old  trees,  since  this  age  is  more  certain 
to  grow  than  when  older  plants  are  taken.  Pecans  may 
be  propagated  from  the  seed,  but  this  method  is  rather 
uncertain,  and  it  is  best  to  graft  or  bud.  If  raised  from 
seeds  proceed  as  follows:  Prepare  the  land  thoroughly  by 

deep  plowing;  run  off 
drills  three  to  four  feet 
apart,  and  place  the 
nuts  about  fifteen  inches 
apart  in  the  drills.  After 
one  year  old  take  up  the 
plants  carefully,  pre- 
serving as  many  fibrous 
roots  as  possible;  cut  off  one-half  of  the  tap  root  and 
reset  at  once  in  the  place  where  the1  orchard  will  be  per- 
manently situated.  The  best  variety  of  the  pecan  is  the 
Louisiana  and  Tioxas  Papee  Shell. — The  shell,  as 
the  name  indicates,  is  very  thin  ami  the  nut  is  large.  It 
commands  a  high  price,  because  of  the  size  of  the  nut,  the 
thinness  of  the  shell  and  the  fine  flavor  of  the  kernel. 
There  are  several  forms  of  this  variety  sold  by  nursery- 
men, known  by  such  local  names  as  Biloxi,  Centennial, 
Colorado,  Mexican,  Pride  of  the  Coast,  Stuart,  Van 
Deman,  etc. 

WALNUTS. 
Madeira  Nut,  or  English  Walnut  (Juglan*  Regia)  is 
a  fine,  lofty  tree,  with  a  handsome,  open  head,  producing 
the  well-known  nuts  of  the  shops.     It  is  produced  from 


Fig.  214 


1  Nut. 


FRUITS— VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  543 

the  seed,  or  by  grafting'.  Likes  a  rich,  moist  soil.  Juglans 
praeparturiens  is  similar  to  the  above,  but  bears  fruit 
when  three  years  old,  and  is  valuable  on  this  account  for 
the  garden. 

Black  Walnut  (Juglans  nigra)  should  have  a  place  in 


Fig.  215— English  Walnut  (Jug-  Fig.  216— Japan  Walnut. 

fans  rii/i'i). 

the  grounds  of  the  amateur,  as  it  is  not  only  a  fine  shade 
tree,  but  is  valuable  for  its  fruit  and  timber. 

Japan  Walnut  (Juglans  Sieboldiana). — Shells  of  the 
nuts  are  thick,  and  the  kernel  is  sweet.  The  nuts  form  in 
clusters.    The  tree  produces  a  pleasing  appearance,  with 


Fig.  217 — Butternut  (Juglans  cineriu). 

its  large  leaves,  and    makes    an    attractive    addition  to 
ornamental  grounds,  parks,  etc. 

Butternut,  or  White  Walnut  (Juglans  cineria),  is  a 
native  American  nut,  greatly  prized  by  many.    The  shell 


544  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

caii  be  propagated  by  seeds,  but  the  sure  way  to  secure 
the  type  is  to  bud  or  graft. 

OLIVE.— (Olea  Europea.) 

The  Olive  is  a  low- branching,  evergreen  tree,  rising  to 
the  height  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet,  with  stiff,  narrow, 
bluish-green  leaves.  The  fruit  is  a  drupe,  of  oblong,  sphe- 
roidal form;  hard,  thick  flesh  of  a  yellowish-green  color, 
turning  black  when  ripe.  The  tree  is  a  native  of  Greece 
and  the  seacoast  ridges  of  Asia  and  Africa;  it  has  been 
cultivated  from  time  immemorial  for  the  oil  expressed 
from  its  ripe  fruit.  Where  cultivated  it  answers  all  the 
purposes  of  cream  and  butter,  and  enters  into  every  kind 
of  cooking.  Unripe  olives  are  much  used  as  pickles, 
which,  though  distasteful  at  first  to  most  persons,  become 
by  custom  exceedingly  grateful,  promoting  digestion,  and 
increasing  appetite.  The  ripe  Olive  is  crushed  to  a  paste, 
when  the  oil  is  expressed  through  coarse  hempen  bags 
into  hot  water,  from  which  the  pure  oil  is  skimmed  off.  If 
the  stone  is  crushed  the  oil  is  inferior.  Lime  and  potash 
should  be  applied  as  fertilizers,  should  the  soil  be  defi- 
cient in  these  substances. 

Propagation  ami  Culture. — Olive  plantations  are  gen- 
erally formed  from  the  suckers  which  grow  abundantly 
from  the  roots  of  old  trees. 

It  grows  readily  from  cuttings  and  seeds.  With  the 
aid  of  a  sharp  knife  secure  the  cuttings  from  strong, 
healthy  young  shoots,  and  remove  all  leaves  except  two 
or  three  at  the  top.  riant  in  boxes  of  moist  s;ind,  which 
are  placed  in  warm,  shady  localities.  After  rooting  the 
young  plants  are  potted  and  given  more  sunshine  for 
several  mouths,  when  they  are  transplanted  in  the 
orchard. 

The  cultivated.  Olive  may  perhaps  also  be  grafted  on 
our  Olea  Americana,  or  Devil  Wood,  which  abounds  on  our 
seacoast.    The  best  trees  are  from  seeds  which  commence 


FRUITS VARIETIES   AND    CULTURE.  545 

bearing  in  five  or  six  years,  but  are  not  remunerative 
until  ten  or  twelve  years  old.  The  trees  produce  fifteen 
to  twenty  pounds  of  oil  per  year,  and  their  longevity  is 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  fruit  tree.  The  dry  lime- 
stone soils  of  Florida  would  probably  become  exceedingly 
valuable  if  planted  with  the  Olive. 

It  should  be  tried  wherever  the  Orange  will  survive  the 
winter.  In  planting,  the  trees  are  set  from  thirty  to  forty 
feet  apart.  The  European  varieties  are  many,  but  we 
enumerate  only  a  few. 

In  1S01  General  Nathaniel  Greene,  of  Revolutionary 
fame,  planted  four  hundred  olive  trees  at  Dungeness,  on 
Cumberland  Island,  Georgia,  and  in  1895  they  were  forty 
feet  high  and  two  and  one-half  feet  in  diameter.  It  is  said 
that  one  thousand  barrels  of  olives  were  gathered  from 
these  trees  in  one  season.  Unfortunately,  the  unusually 
cold  weather  of  1S95  that  damaged  so  seriously  the 
orange  trees  of  Florida,  also  killed  these  olive  trees  at 
Dungeness,  so  that  they  were  cut  down.  Strong  shoots 
are  now  putting  forth  from  the  stumps,  and  the  proprietor 
is  trying  to  start  the  trees  in  the  direction  of  another 
magnificent  growth. 

Mr.  P.  J.  Berckmans,  iu  speaking  of  the  olive,  makes 
the  following  comments:  "  Olives  have  been  cultivated  on 
the  coast  of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina  for  many  years, 
and  an  excellent  quality  of  oil  has  been  produced.  A 
peculiarity  of  the  olive  is  that  it  flourishes  and  bears 
abundant  crops  on  rocky  and  barren  soils,  where  no  other 
fruit  trees  are  successful.  Olive  trees  begin  to  bear  fruit 
at  from  eight  to  ten  years  of  age,  but  should  not  be 
planted  farther  north  than  this  section  (Augusta,  Ga.), 
where  they  are  sometimes  injured  by  excessive  cold." 

The  following  varieties  are  recommended : 

Nevadillo  Blanco. — This  is  of  Spanish  origin,  and 
is  the  variety  from  which  most  of  the  oil"  shipped  from 

35 


546 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Spain  is  extracted.     The  tree  is  a  rapid  grower,  and  the 
branches  are  pendant. 

Picholim:  (oblonga). — This  variety  is  an  early  fruiter, 
and  the  tree  grows  very  rapidly.  It  is  not  so  liable  to  in- 
sect attacks  as  is  the  case  with  some  of  the  other  varie- 
ties. In  Florida  and  South  Georgia  this  variety  is  "very 
popular. 

THE  ORANGE,  LEMON,  ETC. 

The  Orange  (Citrus)  is  a  native  of  Asia.  The  rich 
golden  fruit  displayed  among  its  dark,  glossy,  evergreen 


Fig.  218— Alligator  Orange.     (Photo,  by  O.  P.  Havens.) 


The 

tree  grows  to  the  height  of  twenty  to  thirty  feet,  with  a 
round,  symmetrical  head ;  the  bark  of  the  trunk  is  of  an 
ashy-gray,  while  that  of  the  twigs  is  green.  The  leaves 
are  of  a  fine,  healthy,  shining  green;  its  blossoms  are 
delicately  fragrant,  and  as  the  tree  is  in  all  stages  of  bear- 


(547)         Plate  12— Sour  Wild  Orange.     (Photo,  by  0.  P.  Havens.) 


548 


GARDENING    K)i;    THE    SOUTH. 


ing  at  the  same  time,  in  flower  and  ripe  golden  fruit, 
nothing  can  surpass  an  orange  grove  in  attractiveness. 
The  wild,  bitter-sweet  orange  is  found  in  various  parts 
of  Florida  as  far  north  as  29°;  its  occurrence  is  said  to  be 
indicative  of  a  good  soil.  It  may  have  originated  from  the 
Seville  orange  introduced  by  the  Spaniards.  The  orange 
is  extensively  cultivated  in  Florida,  and  somewhat  on  the 
coast  of  Georgia  and  Carolina. 


Fig.  219— Tangerine  Orange.     (Photo,  by  0.  P  Havens.) 


Lime  is  essential  to  the  healthy  growth  of  the  tree;  the 
best  soil  is  a  deep  fertile  loam  on  the  banks  of  rivers. 

The  wild  orange  taken  from  the  woods  is  generally 
used  as  a  stock  to  graft  the  most  desirable  varieties  upon. 

There  are  about  seventy-five  varieties  of  oranges  culti- 
vated, of  two  principal  classes,  viz. :  The  Sweet  or  China 
Orange,  and  the  Bitter  Seville  or  Wild  Orange.  The  latter 
class  is  much  the  more  hardy,  but  of  no  value  as  a  dessert 
fruit.    They  are  used  in  cooking,  preserving,  wine-making, 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


549 


and  for  flavoring.  Of  the  sweet  oranges,  the  Maltese  has 
a  thick  and  spongy  rind,  red  and  delicious  pulp,  but  some- 
times with  a  trace  of  bitterness.  The  glands  which 
secrete  the  oil  are  prominent. 

There  are  three  species  of  oranges  cultivated,  viz.: 

Citrus  Ugaradia,  or  Bitter  Oranges. 
Citrus  nobilis,  or  Mandarins. 
Citrus  aurantium,  or  Sweet  Oranges. 


Fig.  220— Patsuma  Orange.     (Photo,  by  O.  P.  Havens.) 

The  Horticultural  Society  of  Florida,  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  tenth  annual  meeting  for  1897,  gives  the  follow- 
ing account  and  recommendations  concerning  these 
species  and  their  varieties.  Of  the  six  varieties  of  bitter 
oranges  mentioned  in  their  catalogue  the  Bitter  Sweet 
and  Phillips'  Bitter  Sweet  are  recommended  as  con- 
stituting varieties  of  the  "  highest  excellence  in  all  the 
desired  characteristics  of  season,  quality,  distinction,  pro- 


550  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

ductiveness,  etc."    The  varieties  of  Mandarines  recom- 
mended are  Satsuma  and  Tangerine. 

The  Satsuma  is  a  seedless  variety  of  the  Mandarin  or 
"  kid-glove  "  class,  and  it  will  stand  a  considerable  reduc- 
tion of  temperature,  even  to  25°,  when  other  kinds  of 
oranges  will  be  destroyed.  The  color  is  a  deep  orange, 
and  the  flavor  is  juicy  and  rich.     It  matures  fruit  from 


Fig.  221— Section  ot  Satsuma  Orange.     (Photo,  by  O.  P.  Havens.) 

September  to  November,  and  is  hardy  as  far  north  as 
Southern  Georgia.  It  is  well  adapted  for  portions  of  the 
country  in  Northern  Florida,  Southern  Georgia,  and 
along  the  Gulf  coast.  The  plant  is  prolific,  and  it  begins 
bearing  fruit  when  quite  young. 

The  varieties  of  sweet    oranges    recommended  by  the 
Florida  Horticultural  Societv  are: 


Bessie, 

Dn  Koi, 

Boone, 

Early  Oblong, 

Centennial, 

Enterprise  Seedless, 

Double  Imperial  Navel, 

Foster, 

FRUITS VARIETIES    AND     CULTURE. 


551 


Hart's  Late, 

Higley's  Late, 

Honiosassa, 

Imperial  Blood, 

Jaffa, 

Jaffa  Blood, 

King, 


May's  Best, 
Nonpareil, 
Old  Vini, 
Paper  Rind, 
Parson  Brown, 
Pineapple, 
Sanouinea, 


Fig.  222— Washington  Navel  Orange.     (Photo,  by  O.  P.  Havens.) 

Majorca,  St.  Michael  Blood, 

Maltese  Blood,  Sweet  Seville, 

Maltese  Egg,  Valencia  Late, 

Maltese  Oval,  Vinous, 

Washington  Navel  (Bahia). 

The  navel  varieties  are  much  esteemed  on  account  of 
the  delicate  texture  and  superior  quality  of  the  fruit. 
They  are  generally  shy  bearers,  although  experience  indi- 


552 


GARDENING    J-'oi;    THE    SOUTH. 


cates  that  they  are  much  more  prolific  upon  rough  lemon 
and  Trifoliate  stocks  than  as  generally  grown  on  orange 
stocks.  The  Blood  varieties  are  sweet,  and  therefore 
marketable  early  in  season.  At  this  time  their  distinctive 
character  is  not  apparent,  and  they  have  little  advantage 
in  market  over  other  early  sorts.  As  the  season  ad- 
vances their  ruby  tints  develop  until  quite  apparent  on 


Fig.  228— Section  of  Washington  Navel  Orange.     (Photo,  by  O.  P.  Havens.) 

the  exterior,  and  their  quality  continues  to  improve;  at 
full  ripeness  they  are  equalled  by  few  and  surpassed  by 
none.  In  locations  sufficiently  exempt  from  frost  to  per- 
mit their  being  held  on  the  trees  until  they  reach  perfec- 
tion, they  bring  high  prices,  and  are  exceptionally  profit- 
able. The  Satsuma  is  valued  on  account  of  its  hardiness, 
which  is  increased  by  being  grafted  on  the  hardy  Trifo- 
liate stock.    As  it  is  marketable  before  cold  weather  (it 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  553 

ripens  very  early)  many  trees    are   planted    in    sections 
north  of  the  usual  range  of  oranges. 

Excluding  the  Navels,  Bloods  and  Satsuinas,  noted 
above,  and  without  disparagement  to  other  sorts  of  equal 
merit,  the  following  are  suggested  as  a  desirable  list  for 
general  planting,  arranged  in  order  of  succession: 


Fig.  224— King  Orange.     (Photo,  by  O.  P.  Havens.) 

Very  Early. — Boone,  Sweet  Seville. 

Early. — Enterprise,  Seedless,  Parson  Brown. 

Early  Medium. — Nonpareil,  Centennial. 

Medium. — Pineapple,  Jaffa,  Homosassa. 

Late  Medium. — Majorca,  Du  Roi. 

Late. — Bessie,  King,  Maltese  Oval. 

Very  Late. — Hart's  Late. 

The  Lemon  (Citrus  Limoiium)  is  cultivated  like  the 
orange,  but  has  longer,  lighter-colored  leaves,  with  naked 
petioles  or  footstalks;  flowers  tinged  with  red  externally; 
fruit  oblong,  with  a  swollen  point;  pale  yellow  color,  with 
an  acid  pulp.     Used  mostly  for  flavoring,  and  lemonade 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  555 

and  other  cooling  drinks.  The  trees  are  usually  very  pro- 
ductive. The  following  varieties  are  recommended  and 
highly  esteemed  by  the  fruit-growers  in  Florida:  Belair, 
Eureka,  Genoa,  Imperial,  Sicily,  Villa=Franca. 

The  Lime  (Citrus  acida)  has  smaller  flowers  than  the 
lemon,  which  are  white;  fruit  small,  round,  and  pale 
yellow  color,  with  a  slight  protuberance  at  the  end;  very 
acid.  Used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  lemon.  The 
green  fruit  makes  a  delicious  preserve.  The  varieties  are : 
Mexican,  Persian,  Rangpur  and  Tahiti.  The  two  last  are 
excellent  in  quality. 

Citron  (Citrus  Medico). — Has  ±arge,  oblong,  wingless 
leaves;  flowers  tinged  with  red  or  purple;  the  fruit  is  very 
large  and  lemon  shaped,  with  warts  and  furrows.  Kind 
thick  and  fragrant,  pulp  subacid.  Used  for  preserves. 
The  varieties  are :  Lemon,  Lymon  and  Orahne.  The  last  is 
generally  considered  to  be  the  best  in  quality. 

Shaddock  and  Grape  Fruit  (Citrus  Decumana)  have 
leaves  winged  like  the  orange;  flowers  white;  fruit  globu- 
lar, and  very  large,  weighing  often  six  to  eight  pounds; 
rind  very  thick;  pulp  dry,  sweetish,  or  subacid.  The  de- 
sirable varieties  are:  Aurantium,  Blood  Shaddock,  For- 
bidden Fruit  (usually  applied  to  entire  list).  Hart,  Josse- 
lyn,  Mammoth  or  Orange  Shaddock,  Pernambuco, 
Triumph,  Walter. 

Kumquats  or  Kin  Kans  (Citrus  Japonica). — This  citrus 
fruit  originated  in  Japan,  and  is  more  hardy  than  the 
orange.  It  is  known  in  Japan  by  the  name  of  Kumqaat 
and  in  China  by  the  name  of  Kin  Kan.  The  plant  is 
dwarfish  in  habit,  but  the  shape  is  beautiful  and  attrac- 
tive. The  fruit  occurs  in  clusters,  and  is  much  desired 
for  preserving,  pickling  and  making  into  jams.  The  plant 
is  very  ornamental,  and  makes  a  desirable  addition  to  the 
list  of  shrubs  for  the  lawn  in  that  portion  of  the  country 
where  the  orange  tree  is  successfullv  crown.    Because  of 


(556)       Plate  14— Kuniquats  or  Kin  Kans.     ( Photo,  by  0.  P.  Havens. ) 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AMD    CULTURE.  557 

its  small  size  the  Kumquat  is  also  well  suited  for  room 
decoration,  and  it  is  made  all  the  more  attractive  because 
of  the  bright  yellow  clusters  of  fruit  which  hang  on  the 
limbs  in  profusion  all  winter.  The  flowers  are  also  abun- 
dant. There  are  two  varieties,  differing  only  in  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  fruit — the  Marumi  (round  fruit)  and 
Nagami  (oblong  fruit).  The  latter  is  the  largest,  and  is 
the  variety  usually  grown  in  Florida. 

Marketing. — Citrus  fruits  are  packed  in  crates  and 
barrels  which  are  well  ventilated.  It  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  that  the  fruits  should  be  in  prime  condition 
before  packing,  because  nothing  so  much  detracts  from 
the  value  of  the  package  as  to  have  unsound  fruit  mixed 
with  the  good.  Great  care  should  also  be  taken  to  select 
and  grade  the  fruit  and  pack  each  size  in  separate  crates, 
and,  in  the  case  of  oranges,  wrapping  each  one  in  tissue 
paper.  Pack  firmly  and  press  in  well,  so  that  the  pack- 
ages will  not  show  shrinkage  when  the  crates  reach  their 
destination.  Fruit  sells  well  when  the  greatest  care  is 
taken  in  packing  the  same  sizes  and  qualities  together 
and  avoiding  all  unsound  and  unsightly  forms. 

PEACH.— ( Persica  vulgaris.) 

The  Peach  is  a  native  of  Persia,  whence  its  cultivation 
has  proceeded  westward ;  but  it  has  nowhere  found  a  soil 
or  climate  more  congenial  to  it  than  in  these  Southern 
States.  Indeed,  the  peach  is  the  favorite,  and  in  many 
instances  the  only  fruit  tree  cultivated  by  our  planters. 
It  requires  a  soil  of  but  moderate  fertility;  its  enemies 
and  diseases  are  but  feAV,  and  the  return  so  speedy  that 
there  is  no  excuse  for  being  without  good  peaches. 

A  somewhat  serious  difficulty  in  peach  culture,  which 
results  from  bad  pruning,  is  the  tendency  to  overbear 
and  break  down  the  limbs  from  the  excess  of  the  crop. 
More  peach  trees  are  destroyed  or  badly  injured  from 


558  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

this  cause  than  any  other.  Peach  trees  should  always 
be  pruned  by  cutting  off  the  extremities  of  the  branches, 
so  as  to  leave  about  one-half  of  the  last  year's  growth. 
The  fruit  is  produced  on  these  small  branches,  and  by 
reducing  the  top  in  this  manner,  overbearing  is  prevented, 
the  fruit  is  effectually  thinned,  and  is  larger,  finer 
flavored,  and  nearly  as  much  fruit  can  be  taken  from  each 
tree  without  danger  of  breaking.  The  tree  is  also  kept 
hyw  and  close,  and  more  trees  and  larger  crops  can  be 
grown  to  the  acre. 

This  method  of  pruning  is  called  shortening  in,  or  head- 
ing in,  and  is  expeditiously  done  with  pruning  shears. 
Old  trees  that  have  got  out  of  shape  can  be  pruned  and 
brought  into  a  symmetrical  form  by  sawing  off  limbs  of 
two  or  three  years'  growth  at  or  near  the  forks;  by  this 
method  old  trees  can  be  renewed  in  vigor  as  well  as  in 
form.  Pruning  can  be  performed*  at  any  time  when  the 
leaves  are  off.  If  it  is  wished  to  make  young  trees  pro- 
duce early,  they  may  be  shortened  in  the  last  of  July,  the 
year  they  are  transplanted.  Care  should  be  taken  that 
the  branches  do  not  divide  into  forks,  as  they  are  exceed- 
ingly apt  to  split  when  bearing  a  crop  of  fruit.  The  peach, 
like  all  other  fruit  trees,  should  branch  low,  say  within 
two  feet  of  the  ground,  and  be  kept  in  a  pyramidal  or 
round  form,  as  nearly  as  can  be  done. 

The  loss  of  the  fruit  by  decay  as  it  approaches  maturity 
is  more  annoying  than  anything  else  in  peach  culture. 

If  the  season  is  warm  and  wet  very  few  kinds  ripen 
well  if  on  moist  or  rich  earth  or  soil.  There  is  a  very 
common  opinion  that  peaches  propagated  from  the  stones 
of  unripe  fruit  are  more  liable  to  rot  than  those  from 
stones  or  pits  of  fully  ripened  fruit;  some  also  think  decay 
is  caused  by  planting  the  trees  too  deep.  It  is,  however, 
certain  that  some  varieties  are  much  more  subject  to 
decay  than  others  placed  in  the  same  position. 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  559 

The  most  suitable  soils  to  ripen  sound  and  high  flavored 
fruit  are  dry,  but  moderately  fertile;  hills  and  hillsides 
generally  are  the  best  locations  for  the  peach;  thinning 
the  fruit  so  that  no  two  peaches  touch  each  other  is  very 
necessary  in  order  to  prevent  decay.  The  peach  is  mostly 
used  in  its  fresh  state  for  the  dessert,  and  is  generally 
considered  the  most  delicious  fruit  of  temperate  climates. 
When  allowed  to  ripen  on  the  tree,  it  is  the  most  whole- 
some of  fruits,  aud  as  an  article  of  food  is  considerably 
nutritious.  Peaches  are  also  used  for  pies,  are  preserved 
in  brandy  and  sugar,  and  are  excellent  when  dried  for 
winter  use.  For  culinary  purposes  the  clings  are  most 
preferred.  Peaches  and  cream  form  a  delicious  dessert 
dish. 

For  drying  take  those  of  the  best  quality,  just  as  they 
are  ripe  enough  to  eat;  halve  them,  remove  the  stones, 
and  sprinkle  over  them  a  little  nice  sugar,  and  dry  them 
in  a  brick  oven,  moderately  warm.  Thus  prepared  the 
aroma  and  flavor  are  preserved,  and  they  are  free  from 
insects.  If  the  peaches  were  fully  ripe,  no  cooking  will 
be  required,  but  when  used  they  are  simply  soaked  in 
cold  or  warm  water.  Sufficient  sugar,  varying  with  the 
acidity  of  the  fruit,  is  added  before  drying.  The  firm,  yel- 
low fleshed  are  the  best  for  drying.  Peaches  thus  pre- 
pared are  only  inferior  to  the  fresh  fruit,  as  they  retain 
much  of  the  flavor.  Dried  in  the  usual  way  from  unripe 
fruit,  exposed  to  the  sun,  much  of  the  flavor  is  dissipated. 
Peaches  are  excellent  preserved  in  self-sealing  cans, 
which  now  can  be  purchased  at  reasonable  prices. 

Lime,  potash  and  the  phosphates  are  the  chief  elements 
the  peach  requires  in  the  soil.  Bone-dust  and  wTood  ashes 
are  valuable  applications,  much  more  suitable  than  com- 
mon animal  manures.  They  may  be  dressed  with  com- 
post of  woods'  earth,  or  swamp  muck,  if  the  soil  is  very 
poor. 


560  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

When  the  trees  are  planted  the  holes  may  be  made 
large,  and  enriched  with  well-decayed  manure,  to  give  a 
good  growth  of  wood.  For  this  purpose  guano  is  an  excel- 
lent application;  but  it  is  fatal  to  the  tree  if  it  comes  in 
contact  with  the  roots.  I  have  applied  it  with  success  to 
all  kinds  of  fruit  trees.  After  the  holes  are  dug,  a  little 
guano  is  sprinkled  in  them;  this  is  then  covered  with 
about  two  inches  of  good  mould,  on  which  the  tree  is 
planted.  When  the  tree  is  planted,  another  sprinkling  of 
guano  may  be  added,  and  covered  with  a  little  more 
earth;  two  or  three  tablespoonfuls  are  sufficient  for  a 
tree,  and  but  a  small  quantity  is  required  for  a  large 
orchard.  For  this  purpose,  as  well  as  for  manuring  most 
shrubs,  rose  bushes,  etc.,  few  applications  are  so  cheap 
and  satisfactory.  After  the  tree  begins  to  fruit,  applica- 
tions of  lime,  ashes,  or  leaf  mould  are  much  better  than 
those  which  excite  growth,  as  they  do  not  impair  the 
flavor  of  the  fruit  or  induce  decay. 

The  peach  is  best  propagated  by  budding  and  grafting 
upon  seedling  peach  stocks.  There  are,  however,  many 
varieties  of  the  clings,  particularly,  that  reproduce  them- 
selves from  the  seed,  especially  if  the  tree  from  which  the 
stone  is  taken  stands  apart  from  other  varieties.  It  is 
believed  that  the  stone  of  a  seedling  is  more  apt  to  repro- 
duce its  kind  than  if  taken  from  a  budded  tree.  Seedlings 
often  escape  frosts  that  are  fatal  to  the  finer  varieties,  but 
the  highest  flavored  varieties  of  seedlings  are  often  quite 
as  susceptible  of  injury  as  those  budded  or  grafted;  those 
varieties  bearing  large  flowers  are  much  less  liable  to  be 
injured  by  frost  than  those  having  small  ones. 

Plum  stocks  are  recommended  by  foreign  writers;  but 
they  are  of  little  use  in  this  climate,  for  the  graft  soon  out- 
grows the  stock  and  breaks  off.  Peach  stocks  are  raised 
by  planting  the  stones  two  or  three"  inches  deep,  in  the 
autumn  or  winter.     If  the  stones  are  cracked  thev  are 


FRUITS VARIETIES    A.\D    CULTURE.  561 

more  sure  to  grow.  Abundance  of  stocks  can  often  be 
procured  by  taking  the  volunteers  that  spring  up  under 
the  trees  in  early  spring,  when  about  an  inch  high,  and 
transplanting  in  rows  three  feet  apart  and  oue  foot  in  the 
row.  Plant  them  in  good  soil,  where  they  will  grow 
rapidly;  if  the  season  is  good  they  will  be  of  sufficient  size 
to  bud  iu  August.  Wheu  the  inserted  buds  start  in  the 
following  spring,  the  stocks  may  be  cut  down  to  within 
two  inches  of  the  bud;  and  then  keep  rubbing  off  the 
shoots  or  robbers  for  at  least  two  mouths;  otherwise  the 
inserted  buds  will  be  overpowered  by  them,  and  die,  or 
make  but  feeble  growTth. 

The  buds  had  best  be  iuserted  iu  the  north  side  of  the 
stock  to  screen  them  from  the  sun.  Peach  trees  raised,  or 
varieties  originating,  iu  the  Northern  States  are  not  at  all 
unfitted  for  our  climate,  yet  there  is  some  risk  of  import- 
ing trees  from  the  North  on  account  of  diseases  peculiar 
to  that  section  from  which  Southern  raised  trees  are 
exempt. 

Some  varieties  of  European  fruits  are  found  to  succeed 
better  here  than  where  they  originated,  but  as  a  general 
rule,  all  fruits  succeed  best  in  their  native  locality. 

Peach  trees  in  transplanting  are  set  twenty  feet  apart 
each  way,  which  gives  one  hundred  and  eight  trees  to 
the  acre.  If  shortened  in  yearly,  they  may  be  set  fifteen 
feet  apart,  which  will  give  one  hundred  and  ninety-three 
trees  to  an  acre;  in  gardens  fifteen  feet  is  generally  the 
best  distance. 

Peaches  are  so  much  alike  in  general  character — the 
difference  in  outline,  color,  flavor,  and  texture  being  less 
than  with  other  plants — that  it  is  necessary  in  order  to 
determine  the  name  of  a  variety  to  resort  to  other 
methods  of  distinction. 

The  two  most  obvious  distinctions  or  divisions  are  into 
freestones  and  clingstones;  or,  as  we  call  them,  soft  and 


562 


GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 


plum  peaches;  the  flesh  of  the  former  parting  freely 
from  the  stone,  and  being  of  a  melting  consistency;  and 
that  of  the  latter  named  sorts  adhering  to  the  stone,  and 
being  of  a  firmer  texture.  The  English  give  to  these 
divisions  the  names  of  "  melters  "  and  "  pavies." 

Both  these  grand  divisions  are  subdivided  into  classes 
according  to  the  color  of  the  flesh,  viz.:  Those  with  light 
colored  and  those  with  deep  yellow  flesh.  These  classes 
are  again  divided  into  three  sections.  At  the  base  of  the 
leaf  of  some  varieties  will  bo  found  small  glands,  which 
are  either  round  and  regular,  or  oblong  and  irregular,  or 

kidney  -  shaped;  while 
others  have  no  glands,  but 
are  more  deeply  cut  or 
serrated  like  the  teeth  of 
a  saw. 

Hence  the  three  sec- 
tions, viz.:  1.  Leaves  ser- 
rated, without  glands  (a, 
Figure  158);  2.  Leaves 
with  small,  round,  or  glo- 
bose glands  (/>,  Figure 
3.  Leaves  with  large,  irregular,  reniform  or  kidney- 
shaped  glands  (r,  Figure  158). 

From  the  blossom  another  characteristic  is  derived, 
giving  us  two  sub-sections — the  first  embracing  large 
flowers,  red  in  the  center,  and  pale  at  the  margin;  the 
second,  small  flowers,  tinged  with  dark  red  at  the  margin. 
Most  native  peaches  in  this  vicinity  have  large  flowers, 
but  the  great  mass  of  the  finer  varieties  have  small 
flowers. 

Varieties. — The  following  varieties  have  been  tried  and 
are  found  among  the  most  desirable.  They  are  classed 
pretty  much  in  the  order  of  ripening.  All  named  are  good 
bearers. 

Alexander. — A  prolific  peach  of  bright  color;  large 


158): 


FKUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  563 

flowers;  fruit  medium  size,  red  skin,  white  flesh  and  firm. 
Ripens  May  to  June.     Semi-cling. 

Angel. — Originated  in  Florida  and  highly  prized  in 
that  State.  Fruit  above  average,  round  ;  whitish-red  skin; 
greenish  white  flesh;  best  quality  in  flavor,  and  early. 
Freestone. 

Rivers. — Flowers  from  March  Otk  to  30th;  flowers 
large;  fruit  above  medium;  skin  white,  tinged  with  red; 
flesh  white.  Fruit  ripens  from  middle  of  June  to  the  first 
of  July.    Freestone. 

Hale. — Glands  globose;  fruit  medium,  nearly  round; 
skin  mottled  red;  cheek  dark  red;  flesh  white,  melting, 
juicy,  and  high  flavored;  flowers  large.  Tree  vigorous, 
healthy,  and  an  abundant  bearer,  ripening  ten  days  or  two 
weeks  before  any  other  good  variety.    Free.    (Thomas.) 

Tillottson. — Leaves  deeply  serrated,  without  glands; 
fruit  medium,  round;  skin  nearly  covered  with  red 
ground;  color  pale  yellowish-white,  dotted  with  red,  the 
cheek  being  quite  dark;  flesh  white,  red  at  the  stone,  to 
which  it  adheres  slightly,  although  a  freestone;  melting, 
rich,  and  juicy,  with  a  high  flavor.  Ripens  from  the  15th 
to  the  20th  of  June.    Free. 

Early  York. — Leaves  serrated,  glandless;  flowers 
large;  fruit  medium,  roundish  oval;  suture  slight;  skin 
thickly  dotted  with  pale  red  on  a  greenish-white  ground, 
dark  red  in  the  sun;  flesh  greenish- white,  tender,  melting 
full  of  rich,  slightly  acid  juice.  Ripens  June  20th.    Free. 

George  IV. — Glands  globose;  flowers  small;  fruit 
large,  round,  with  broad  suture;  skin  white,  dotted  with 
red,  cheek  rich  dark  red;  flesh  pale,  melting,  very  juicy, 
with  rich,  luscious  flavor;  stone  small.  Ripens  July  10th. 
Free. 

Grosse  Mignonne. — Glands  globose;  flowers  large; 
fruit  large,  roundish,  apex  depressed;    suture  distinct; 


564  GAEDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTII. 

skin  dull  white,  mottled  with  red,  and  with  a  purplish-red 
cheek;  flesh  red  at  the  stone,  melting,  juicy,  with  a  rich 
vinous  flavor;  stone  small  and  very  rough;  perhaps  the 
best  freestone  peach  in  cultivation.  Ripens  July  10th. 
Free. 

Crawford's  Early. — Glands  globose;  flowers  small; 
fruit  yellowish-white,  with  a  fine  red  cheek;  flesh  yellow, 
melting,  sweet  and  excellent,  Ripens  middle  of  July. 
Free. 

Columbia. — Originated  in  Georgia;  flowers  large;  fruit 
large,  round;  skin  rough;  flesh  yellow  and  excellent 
flavor.     Ripens  in  July.     Freestone. 

Elberta. — This  peach  also  originated  in  Georgia,  and 
is  a  prolific  bearer.  The  flowers  arc  large;  fruit  round, 
compressed;  skin  yellowish-red;  flesh  yellow  and  of  tine 
quality.  Ripens  from  July  10th  to  August  6th.  Freestone. 

Foster. — An  excellent  peach  for  family  use.  Flowers 
small;  fruit  fine  grained  and  juicy,  with  delightful  flavor; 
skin  yellowish-red;  flesh  yellow.  Ripens  in  the  latter  part 
of  July.     Freestone. 

Stump. — Flowers  small;  fruit  round  oval;  skin  light 
red;  flesh  white,  firm  and  juicy;  of  best  quality.  Ripens 
about  the  middle  of  July.    Freestone. 

Triumph. — This  peach  ripens  about  the  time  that  the 
Alexander  comes  to  maturity,  and  it  is  a  favorite  among 
orchardists  for  a  shipping  variety.  The  flavor  is  slightly 
acid,  juicy  and  pleasant;  skin  yellow  with  a  crimson 
blush;  flesh  yellow;  medium  size.  Freestone  when  fully 
ripe. 

Oldmixon  Cling. — Glands  globose;  flowers  small; 
fruit  large,  roundish  oval;  suture  at  the  top;  skin  yellow- 
ish-white, dotted  with  red;  cheek  reel;  flesh  light,  melting, 
juicy  and  rich,  with  a  high,  luscious  flavor.  Ripens  last 
of  July  and  early  in  August. 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  565 

Late  Rareripe. — Glands  globose;  flowers  small;  fruit 
large,  roundish  oval;  skin  downy;  color,  grayish-white; 
marbled  with  red  in  the  sun;  flesh  pale,  juicy,  melting, 
and  of  a  rich,  luscious  flavor.   Ripens  last  of  July. 

Late  Admirable. — Glands  globose;  flowers  small; 
fruit  large,  roundish  oval;  suture  distinct;  apex  swollen, 
acute;  skin  pale  yellowish-green,  with  a  pale  red  cheek, 
marbled  with  dark  red;  flesh  pale,  melting,  and  fine 
flavored.  Ripens  August  10th  to  15th.  Free.  A  superb 
peach. 

Crawford's  Late. — Glands  globose;  flowers  small; 
very  large,  roundish;  suture  shallow,  but  distinct;  skin 
yellow,  with  dark-red  cheek;  flesh  deep  yellow,  red  at  the 
stone,  juicy,  and  melting,  with  rich,  vinous  flavor.  Ripens 
early  in  August.    Free. 

Lemon  Cling. — Glands  reniform;  flowers  small;  leaves 
long;  fruit  large,  oblong,  narrowed  at  the  top,  with  a 
swollen,  projecting  point;  skin  dark  yellow,  reddened  in 
the  sun;  flesh  fine  yellow,  red  at  the  stone,  flavor  rich  and 
vinous.    Ripens  August  10th. 

President. — Glands  globose;  large,  roundish  oval; 
suture  shallow;  skin  downy,  pale  yellowish-green,  with  a 
dull-red  cheek;  flesh  pale,  but.  deep  red  at  the  stone,  very 
juicy,  melting  and  high  flavored;  stone  very  rough.  Ripens 
August  15th.     Free. 

Tippecanoe. — Glands  reniform;  flowers  small;  fruit 
very  large,  nearly  round,  with  a  point;  skin  yellow,  with 
a  fine  red  cheek;  flesh  yellow,  juicy,  with  a  fine  vinous 
flavor.     Ripens  August  20th.     Cling. 

Chinese  Cling. — Leaves  large  and  very  dark  green; 
fruit,  very  large,  sometimes  weighing  one  pound;  color 
creamy  yellow,  with  a  pale  red  cheek  in  the  sun;  flesh  pale 
yellow,  coarse,  but  of  good  vinous  flavor,  juicy  enough, 
but  has  a  little  too  much  prussic  acid  flavor.  Tree  a  very 
vigorous  grower;  flowers  large.    Ripens  August  10th 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  567 

Eaton's  Golden. — A  premium  peach  from  North 
Carolina;  flowers  large;  fruit  large,  and  resembles  Craw- 
ford's Late  in  appearance;  color  bright  yellow,  marbled 
with  bright  red,  dark  on  the  sunny  side.  The  best  late 
cling  we  have  yet  seen.    Ripens  October  10th. 

Baldwin's  Late. — Fruit  large  and  round,  with  a 
swollen  point;  skin  greenish-white,  with  a  pale  red  cheek; 
flesh  firm,  juicy  and  melting,  and  good  flavored.  Ripe 
October  20th,  and  will  keep  for  several  weeks  in  the 
house.    Free. 

Peento. — Fruit  medium  size,  flat;  white  skin  and  flesh; 
freestone;  good  quality.  Ripens  early.  Tree  vigorous 
grower  and  very  prolific.  This  peach  thrives  well  in 
Florida,  and  is  popular,  particularly  in  the  central  and 
southern  portions  of  the  State.  It  also  does  well  in  South 
Louisiana. 

Everbearing  Peach. — "  This  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable peaches,  as  it  combines  many  desirable  quali- 
ties which  make  it  of  great  value  for  family  use. 

"  1.  Its  long  continued  bearing  period.  The  first  ripen- 
ing begins  about  July  1st,  and  successive  crops  are  pro- 
duced until  the  beginning  of  September.  Fruit  in  all 
stages  of  development — ripe  and  half  grown — may  be 
seen  upon  the  tree  at  the  same  time. 

"  2.  As  the  tree  blossoms  during  a  long  period,  a  com- 
plete failure  of  fruit  has,  therefore,  never  happened  since 
the  original  tree  first  began  to  bear,  eight  years  ago. 

"  3.  The  fruit  is  creamy  white,  mottled  and  striped  with 
light  purple  and  with  pink  veins;  oblong  in  shape,  and 
tapering  to  the  apex;  flesh  white,  with  red  veins  near  the 
skin;  very  juicy,  vinous,  and  of  excellent  flavor;  quality 
very  good  to  best.    Freestone  of  the  Indian  type. 

"  The  first  ripening  averages  three  and  a  half  inches 
long  by  three  inches  broad.  The  size  of  the  second  and 
following  crops  diminishes  gradually,  until  that  of  the 


568 


GAKDEXISG    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


last  ripening  is  about  two  inches  in  diameter.  A  supply 
of  fruit  may,  therefore,  be  secured  from  the  same  tree  for 
nearly  three  months  in  succession. 

"  We  do  not  recommend  the  Everbearing  Peach  for 
commercial  orchards,  but  for  family  use,  or  small  gar- 
dens, where  there  is  room  for  only  a  few  trees,  its  value 
is  unquestionable.  We  offer  it  with  confidence,  as  we 
have  known  the  original  tree  for  the  past  three  years,  and 


Fig.  226— Bidwell  Early  Peach.     (Div.  Pomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.) 

gathered  the  fruit  in  its  various  stages  of  development." 
(Berckmans.) 

The  following  additional  varieties  are  popular  in  some 
sections  of  the  South: 


Amelia, 
Bidwell  Late, 
Bidwell  Early, 
Beer's  Smock, 
Kerr  (Jessie), 


General  Lee, 
Mountain  Rose, 
Onderdonk, 
Sneed, 
St.  John, 


Waldo. 


FKUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  569 

Peaches  suitable  for  Middle  Virginia,  West  North  Caro- 
lina, North  South  Carolina,  North  Georgia,  Northeast 
Alabama,  and  Middle  Tennessee: 

Alexander,  Late  Admirable, 

Beer's  Smock,  Late  Crawford, 

Early  Crawford,  Late  Rareripe, 

Elberta,  Mountain  Rose, 

Foster,  Oldmixon  Cling, 

George  IV.,  Rivers, 

Grosse  Mignonne,  Sneed, 

Hale,  Stump, 
St.  John. 

Peaches  suitable  for  Eastern  Virginia,  Eastern  North 
Carolina,  the  southern  half  of  South  Carolina,  the  south- 
ern half  of  Georgia,  all  of  Alabama  except  the  north- 
eastern portions,  Mississippi,  Southeast  Arkansas,  North 
Louisiana,  and  Eastern  Texas: 


Alexander, 

Kerr  (Jessie), 

Amelia, 

Late  Crawford, 

Chinese  Cling, 

General  Lee, 

Columbia, 

Lemon  Cling, 

Early  Crawford, 

Mountain  Rose, 

Early  Vork, 

Oldmixon  Cling, 

Elberta, 

Sneed, 

Everbearing, 

St.  John  (Yellow), 

Hale, 

Tillottson. 

Peaches  suitable  for 

Southern  Louisiana  and  Florida 

Angel, 

Early  Cream, 

Bidwell  Early, 

Ferdinand, 

Bidwell  Late, 

Florida  Crawford, 

Cabler  Indian, 

General  Lee, 

Countess, 

Gibbons, 

Dorothy  N., 

Honey, 

570  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

Imperial,  (Sneed, 

Jewel,  -  Suber, 

Maggie,  Taber, 

Onderdonk,  Thurber, 

Pallas,  Victoria, 

Peento,  Waldo. 

Marketing. — Early  peaches  are  shipped  in  baskets 
packed  in  crates.  When  the  fruit  becomes  more  plenti- 
ful, however,  well  ventilated  barrels  may  be  used.  Equal 
care  must  be  exercised  in  assorting  this  fruit  and  packing 
separately  the  same  sizes  and  grades  as  is  cautioned  in 
shipping  oranges.  Too  great  emphasis  cannot  be  placed 
on  this  important  point.  Take  care  in  handling  the 
peach,  so  as  not  to  injure  the  "  bloom"  on  the  fruit. 

PEAK. — f  Pyrus  communis.) 

The  Pear  is  often  found  growing  wild  in  hedges  in 
various  parts  of  Europe,  China  and  Western  Asia.  It  is  a 
thorny  tree,  with  upright  branches,  tending  to  the  pyra- 
midal form.  The  wild  fruit  is  exceedingly  harsh  and 
astringent;  but  no  fruit  whatever  is  more  delicious, 
sugary,  and  melting  than  its  best  improved  varieties. 
The  pear  was  early  brought  into  cultivation;  there  were 
thirty-two  varieties  in  Pliny's  time,  \^\  they  were  "  but  a 
heavy  fruit,  unless  boiled  or  baked,"  and  it  was  not  before 
the  seventeenth  century  that  it  became  really  worthy  of 
culture  for  the  dessert.  Indeed,  the  majority  of  the  best 
varieties  have  originated  within  the  last  century.  The 
pear,  under  favorable  circumstance's,  is  a  long-lived  tree. 
The  Endicott  pear  tree,  still  living  in  Danvers,  Massa- 
chusetts, was  planted  by  Governor  Endicott  in  lf>2S,  or 
eight  years  after  tin1  landing  of  the  Pilgrims. 

M.  P>osc  mentions  trees  in  Europe  which  are  known  to 
be  four  hundred  years  old.  Even  in  this  State  trees  that 
were  in  full  bearing  forty  years  ago  are  still  healthy, 
vigorous,  and  productive.    It  will  endure  in  suitable  soils 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AXD    CULTURE. 


571 


greater  extremes  of  heat  than  the  apple,  succeeding  well 
in  latitudes  too  warm  for  the  latter  fruit  to  flourish.  It  is 
better  adapted  to  southern  climates  than  the  apple,  while 
in  cold  climates  it  succeeds  as  well. 

The  pear  is  the  most  delicious  of  fruits  for  the  dessert; 
and,  iu  this  latitude,  by  choosing  proper  varieties,  we  are 
able  to  have  them  ten  or  eleven  months  of  the  year.  The 
finer  kinds  often  sell  in  the  cities  for  one  or  two  dollars 
per  dozen.  It  is  excellent  for  baking,  preserves  and  mar- 
malade. It  may  be  dried  like  the  apple  and  peach,  and, 
with  or  without  sugar,  will  keep  for  years.  Perry  is  made 
from  the  juice,  as  cider  from  the  apple.  The  wood  is  fine- 
grained and  compact,  and,  dyed  black,  is  used  in  place  of 
ebony. 

Dessert  pears  should  have  a  sugary,  aromatic  juice,  and 
a.  soft,  melting,  subliquid  texture.  Some  few  of  a  crisp, 
firm,  or  breaking  consistency  are  very  good.  Pears  for 
stewing  or  baking  should  be  large,  firm-fleshed,  and 
moderately  juicy.  The  harsh,  austere  kinds  are  thought 
best  for  perry. 

Gathering  and  Preserving  flic  Fruit. — Most  varieties  of 
the  pear  are  much  better  if  picked  from  the  tree  before 
fully  ripe,  and  ripened  in  the  house.  Indeed,  some  few 
kinds,  like  the  Heathcote,  Bartlett  and  Van  Assche,  will 
ripen  well  if  gathered  at  any  time  after  they  are  half 
grown.  When  a  few  begin  to  turn  yellow  and  ripen  on 
the  tree,  then  gather  the  whole  crop. 

Many  of  the  most  delicious  varieties,  if  allowed  to 
ripen  on  the  tree,  become  dry,  insipid,  and  only  second 
or  third  rate.  They  will  also  ripen  more  gradually,  last 
longer,  and  be  less  liable  to  loss  or  injury,  if  ripened  in 
the  house.  It  is  said,  however,  a  few  varieties  do  best  to 
ripen  on  the  tree.  When  gathered,  some  few  kinds  ripen 
more  perfectly  by  exposing  them  to  the  light  and  air. 
Most  of  them  do  best,  however,  in  kegs  or  small  boxes,  or 


572  GARDENING    FOR   THE    SOUTH. 

on  the  shelves  of  a  cool,  dark  fruit  room,  each  one  sepa- 
rately enveloped  in  paper  or  loose  cotton.  This  is  not 
necessary  with  the  summer  varieties.  Pears,  like  apples, 
must  be  gathered  by  hand,  with  the  same  precaution  to 
prevent  bruises,  or  they  will  soon  decay.  Winter  pears 
should  hang  as  long  as  may  be  upon  the  tree.  A  week  or 
two  before  their  proper  time  to  ripen,  bring  them  from 
the  fruit-room  into  a  warm  apartment;  this  will  much 
improve  their  flavor. 

Propagation  and  Culture. — Pears  are  propagated  by 
budding  or  grafting  on  seedling  pear  stocks  or  on  certain 
varieties  of  the  quince.  Pear  suckers  should  never  be 
employed  for  this  purpose,  for  they  seldom  have  good 
roots,  and  the  trees  are  short-lived;  a  great  deal  of  preju- 
dice exists  against  pear  culture  from  this  cause.  Seed- 
lings raised  from  the  thrifty-growing  kinds  that  are  found 
about  the  country  are  much  more  healthy  than  those 
raised  from  the  improved  varieties. 

Sow  the  seed  thickly  in  autumn,  in  drills  eighteen 
inches  apart,  or,  better  still,  mix  the  seed  with  sifted  sand 
in  a  box,  and  place  it  out  doors  during  winter,  and  sow  in 
the  spring,  when  they  begin  to  sprout,  in  good,  rich 
earth;  the  latter  mode  saves  the  seed  from  being  de- 
stroyed by  ground  mice. 

Ashes  are  an  excellent  application  to  the  seed-bed;  the 
soil  should  be  moist,  as  much  of  the  value  of  the  stocks 
depends  on  vigorous  and  continued  growth  the  first 
season.  Take  up  the  stocks  in  November  or  December, 
shorten  the  tap-root,  and  reset  them  in  rows  four  feet 
apart,  putting  those  together  which  are  of  about  the  same 
size.  The  best  of  them,  if  in  a  good,  rich  soil,  will  be  fit 
to  bud  during  the  next  summer,  and  nearly  all  the  balance 
can  be  whip-grafted  the  ensuing  spring. 

Many  kinds  of  pears  grow  well  on  the  quince,  and  come 
some  vears  earlier  into  bearing.    We  have  found  the  com- 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  573 

mon  quince  to  be  equally  as  good  as  the  Angers,  when 
worked  side  by  side  with  them.  The  fruit  produced  from 
trees  worked  on  the  quince  is  usually  larger  and  better 
flavored  than  on  the  pear,  and  the  trees  can  be  set  much 
nearer  together.  They  come  into  bearing  in  two  or  three 
years,  but  are  not  as  long-lived  as  when  worked  on  the 
pear  stock.  In  planting  the  trees  on  pear  stocks  they 
should  be  set  twenty  feet  apart;  but  as  these  will  be 
several  years  before  they  come  into  bearing,  the  spaces 
should  be  filled  up  with  dwarf  trees,  growing  on  the 
quince  stock,  so  as  to  have  them,  when  planted,  ten  feet 
apart.  Thus  a  plantation  of  sixteen  trees,  set  in  a  square, 
on  the  pear  stock,  would  require  thirty-three  on  the 
quince  to  fill  the  intervals — making  a  square  of  seven 
trees  on  a  side.  This  will  prevent  the  attacks  of  the 
quince  borer,  and  add  to  the  longevity  of  the  tree. 

The_soil  must  be  kept  clean  and  well  tilled;  but  it 
should  not  be  deeply  spaded  within  two  feet  of  the  trunks 
of  the  trees.  No  fruit  tree  will  be  healthy  or  bear  well 
if  the  ground  is  deeply  spaded  near  its  stem.  The  pear 
likes  a  deep,  strong  loam,  similar  to  that  required  by  the 
apple.  Iron  is  beneficial;  hence  the  pear  succeeds  well  in 
our  red  clay  loam,  if  deeply  dug  and  sufficiently  manured. 
For  pears  on  the  quince  stock,  the  soil  should  be  deep  and 
cool.  From  the  analysis  of  the  wood  and  bark  of  the 
pear  tree,  it  is  apparent  that  wood  ashes  and  superphos- 
phate of  lime  cannot  but  be  very  beneficial  to  the  growth 
and  fruitfulness  of  the  pear. 

In  pruning  the  pear,  the  object  is  to  make  it  throw  out 
branches  within  a  foot  of  the  ground,  and  to  encourage 
its  growth  in  its  natural  pyramidal  shape. 

Not  much  priming  is  required  the  first  year;  but  any 
shoot  that,  by  overgrowth,  threatens  to  destroy  the 
beauty  of  the  tree  should  be  pinched  in  at  once.  When 
the  tree  is  transplanted,  if  it  has  been  out  of  the  ground 


574  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

for  any  length  of  time  it  must  be  severely  shortened  in. 
If  the  tree  has  good  roots,  the  top  will  soon  be  renewed. 
Severe  pruning  at  this  time  is  the  only  way  to  make  the 
tree  branch  out  near  the  ground,  so  as  to  shade  the  trunk 
and  give  a  tine  pyramidal  shape.  To  secure  this,  plant 
maiden  trees,  or  those  one  year  old  from  the  bud.  When 
they  have  grown  one  year,  cut  back  the  branches  in 
the  winter;  pinch  in  any  shoots,  during  the  summer,  that 
would  mar  the  symmetry  of  the  tree,  or  remove  them  en- 
tirely, if  supertluous. 

Head  back  the  leader  each  year,  to  strengthen  the  side 
branches.  The  leader  must  be  shortened  more  or  less, 
according  to  its  vigor.  A  little  practice  will  enable  any 
one  of  ordinary  judgment  to  form  his  trees  in  the  desired 
shape.  Do  not  let  the  branches  remain  so  close  together 
that,  wrhen  they  come  to  bear,  they  will  cause  the  fruit 
and  foliage  in  the  interior  to  suffer  from  want  of  air;  keep 
the  lower  shoots  the  longest  by  pinching  those  above, 
when  disposed  to  overgrow  them.  This  makes  a  beautiful 
tree,  ornamental  even  for  a  flower  garden. 

A  greater  number  of  varieties  of  the  pear  are  in  cultiva- 
tion than  of  any  other  fruit.  Of  those  that  have  fruited 
here,  the  following  are  the  most  desirable.  The  varieties 
do  not  always  observe  with  us  the  order  as  laid  down  in 
the  books. 

Madeline. — Fruit  medium,  obovate,  tapering  to  the 
stem,  which  is  long  and  slender,  set  on  the  side  of  a  small 
swelling;  skin  smooth,  yellowish-green;  calyx  small,  in 
a  shallow  basin;  flesh  white,  melting,  juicy,  sweet,  and 
perfumed.    Eipe  from  the  1st  to  the  15th  of  June. 

Doyenne  d'Ete,  or  Summer  Doyenne. — Fruit  small, 
roundish,  slightly  turbinate;  skin  smooth,  light  yellow, 
shaded  with  bright  red,  sprinkled  'with  small  gray  or 
russet  dots;  stalk  rather  short,  thick,  fleshy  where  in- 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  575 

serted  in  the  fruit,  in  a  very  slight  depression;  calyx 
small,  partly  closed  in  a  shallow,  slightly  corrugated 
basin;  flesh  white,  melting,  juicy,  and  sweet.  The  best 
very  early  pear;  ripens  with,  and  superior  to,  the  Made- 
leine; in  Georgia  early  in  June,  in  New  York  last  of  July. 
Tree  vigorous;  au  early  and  profuse  bearer;  leaves  long, 
oval,  pointed,  and  dark  green;  seeds  dark. 

Bosc. — Fruit  large,  pyriform,  somewhat  uneven,  taper- 
ing gradually  to  the  stalk;    skin    smooth,  dark    yellow, 


Fig.  227 — Doyenne  d'EtL-. 

nearly  covered  with  rich  cinnamon  russet;  stalk  varies 
sometimes,  being  large  and  fleshy,  as  in  the  figure,  or 
long,  rather  slender,  and  curved;  flesh  white,  melting, 
buttery,  abounding  in  rich,  sugary,  and  delicious  juice, 
slightly  perfumed.  Ripens — Georgia,  in  September  and 
into  October;  New  York,  October  and  November.  Tree 
healthy  and  productive. 

Louise  (Bonne  de  Jersey). — Fruit  large,  oblong,  pyri- 
form; skin  smooth,  glossy,  pale  green  in  the  shade,  brown- 


576  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

ish-red  in  the  sun,  sprinkled  thickly  with  minute  dots; 
stalk  about  an  inch  long,  obliquely  inserted  without 
depression  or  with  a  fleshy  base;  calyx  small,  open,  with 


Fig.  228— Bosc. 

rather  long  segments,  in  a  shallow,  uneven  basin;  flesh 
greenish-white,  very  juicy  and  melting,  and  excellent. 
Ripens — Georgia,  August  10th,  and  through  the  month; 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  577 

New  York,  September  and  October.  The  tree  is  an  up- 
right, vigorous  grower,  forming  a  fine  pyramid.  The  fruit 
is  much  better  on  the  quince  than  on  the  pear. 

Bloodgood. — Fruit  medium,  turbinate  (at  the  South 


Fig.  229— Louise  (Bonne  de  Jersey). 

often  oblate),  generally  thickening  abruptly  to  the  stalk; 
skin  yellow,  considerably  russeted  in  dots  and  net-work 
patches;  calyx  large,  open,  in  a  slight  depression;  stalk 
obliquely  inserted,  about  an  inch  long,  dark  brown,  fleshy 
at  its  base;  flesh  yellowish-white,  buttery,  with  a  rich 
37 


578 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


musky  aroma,  melting  and  sweet;  core  small.  Georgia, 
last  of  June;  New  York,  last  of  July.  Generally  larger 
than  iu  the  figure. 

Manning's  Elizabeth. — Growth  of  tree  moderate; 
shoots  reddish,  dotted  with  brown;  fruit  rather  small, 
regular  oblate  inclining  to  obovate,  or  Doyenne-shaped; 
skin  smooth,  bright  yellow,  dotted  with  russet,  with  a 


Fig.  230— Bloodgood. 

bright  red  cheek;  stalk  scarcely  an  inch  long,  often  a  little 
fleshy  at  its  base,  inserted  in  a  shallow,  regular  cavity; 
calyx  open,  in  a  broad,  shallow  basin;  flesh  white,  juicy, 
melting,  with  a  sprightly  saccharine  flavor.  Ripens — 
Georgia,  July  10th;  New  York,  middle  and  last  of  August. 
The  best  pear  of  its  season ;  productive. 

Bartlett. — Fruit  large,  irregular,  knobby,  obtuse- 
pyriform,  often  much  more  oblong  than  in  the  figure;  skin 
very  thin,  smooth,  clear  light  yellow,  with  a  slight  blush 
in  the  sun,  sprinkled  with  minute  russet  dots  and  with 


FKUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  579 

faint  russet  markings  towards  the  stem;  stalk  about  an 
inch  long,  stout,  in  a  shallow  cavity;  calyx  small,  partly 
open,  in  a  very  shallow,  slightly  plaited  basin;  flesh  white, 


Fig.  231— Bartlett. 

exceedingly  fine-grained,  melting;  full  of  agreeable, 
vinous  juice.  Ripens — Georgia,  through  August;  New 
York,  September.  Specimens  that  fall  before  they  are 
fully  grown,  ripen  nicely  in  the  house.     Sometimes  too 


580  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

acid,  but  one  of  the  most  desirable  sorts. 

land,  1770.    Tree  quite  fruitful,  and  bears  young. 

Brandywinb. — Fruit  above  medium,  varying  from 
ooiate-depressed-pyriform  to  elongated  pyriform;  skin 
yellowish-green,  dotted  and  sprinkled  with  russet,  with 
a  bright  red  cheek;  stalk  flesh v  where  it  joins  the  fruit; 


-Brandywinc. 


calyx  open;  basin  shallow;  flesh  white,  juicy,  melting, 
sugary,  and  somewhat  aromatic.  Georgia,  ripe  the  midj 
die  of  July;  New  York,  the  last  of  August.  Growth 
vigorous  and  upright;  leaves  small,  deep  glossy  green; 
productive. 

White  Doyenne. — The  White  Doyenne,  or  Virgalieu, 
is  one  of  the  most  esteemed  pears.  Fruit  medium  to  large 
size,  generally  larger  than  the  figure,  varying  from 
obovate-pyriform  to  oblate;  skin  clear  pale  yellow,  regu- 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  581 

larly  sprinkled  with  small  dots,  with  a  tine  red  cheek; 
stalk  from  one-half  an  inch  to  over  an  inch  Ion*;-,  generally 
a  little  curved,  and  planted  in  a  small,  round  cavity;  calyx 
small,  closed,  in  a  shallow,  generally  smooth  basin;  flesh 
white,  fine-grained,  buttery,  melting,  with  a  rich,  deli- 


Fig.  233— White  Doyenne. 

cious   flavor.     Ripens — Georgia,  in  August;    New    York, 
September  to  December. 

Henry  the  Fourth,  or  Ananas  d'Ete. — Fruit  varies 
from  the  size  figured  to  small,  roundish  pyriform,  irregu- 
lar, skin  pale  greenish-yellow,  clouded  with  darker  green, 
and  dotted  with  gray  specks;  stalk  about  an  inch  long, 
twisted  obliquely,  planted  on  an  irregular  prominence, 
or  under  a  swollen  lip;  calyx  small,  closed;  basin  shallow 


582 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


and  abrupt;  flesh  Avhite,  exceedingly  juicy  aud  melting, 
with  a  pleasant  perfumed  flavor;  a  dull  fruit  externally, 
but  a  nice  dessert  pear,  bearing  abundantly,  aud  con- 
tinuing to  ripen  several  weeks.  Ripens — Georgia,  from 
the  20th  of  July  into  September;  New  York,  September. 

Selleck. — Fruit  varies  from  obovate  to  obtuse-pyri- 
form,  somewhat   ribbed;  skin   fine,  rich  yellow,  thickly 


Fig.  234 — Henry  the  Fourth 


dotted  and  sprinkled  with  russet,  full  russet  about  the 
base  of  the  stalk;  stalk  long  and  curved,  fleshy  at  its  inser- 
tion in  a  moderate  cavity;  calyx  partly  closed,  in  a  small, 
uneven  basin;  flesh  white,  firm,  juicy  and  melting,  sugary, 
with  a  rich,  aromatic  flavor;  keeps  well  without  decay  at 
the  core;  a  very  valuable  sort.  Uipens  in  Georgia,  20th 
of  August;  New  York,  in  September. 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


583 


Van  Assciie. — Tree  vigorous  and  fruitful,  with  red- 
dish-brown shoots  and  plump  buds;  fruit  medium,  or 
large,  turbinate,  inclining  to  conical,  in  very  large  speci- 
mens oblate;  skin  light  yellow,  with  numerous  russet  and 
red  dots,  with  a  bright  red  cheek;  stalk  an  inch  long, 


Fig.  235— Selleck. 

rather  stout,  obliquely  planted  in  a  slight  depression; 
calyx  partly  closed,  in  a  broad,  deep,  and  wrinkled  basin; 
flesh  white,  fine-grained,  juicy,  with  a  delicate  blending 
of  sweet  and  acid,  and  a  rich,  excellent  flavor.  Ripens— 
August  in  Georgia;  October,  in  New  York.  Generally 
larger  than  the  engraving. 

Duchesse  d'Angouleme. — Fruit  very  large,  obovate, 
varying  from  oblong  to  oblate,  with  a  knobby,  uneven 
surface;  skin  dull   greenish-yellow,  dotted   and  spotted 


584 


GARDENING    FOE    TITE    SOUTH. 


Fig.  237— Seckel. 


FKUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  585 

with  russet;  stalk  about  au  inch  long,  quite  stout,  set  with 
an  inclination  in  a  rather  deep  cavity;  calyx  closed,  set  in 
a  narrow,  somewhat  knobby  basin;  flesh  white,  buttery, 
very  juicy,  with  a  rich,  sugary  flavor.  Excellent  for  so 
large  a  pear.  Brings  the  very  highest  prices  in  market. 
Ripens — Georgia,  the  latter  half  of  August  into  Septem- 
ber; New  York,  in  October.    From  France. 

Seckel. — Fruit  small,  generally  obovate;  skin  at  first 
brownish-green,  at  last  becoming  yellowish-brown,  with  a 
bright  red,  russet  cheek;  stalk  half  to  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  long,  slightly  curved,  set  in  a  slight  depression;  calyx 
small,  open,  in  a  very  shallow  basin;  flesh  whitish,  but-  , 
tery,  very  fine-grained  and  melting,  filled  with  rich, 
sugary,  aromatic  juice.  Ripens — Georgia,  the  last  half 
of  August  and  into  September;  New  York,  September  and 
October.  Tree  of  slow  growth,  but  remarkably  healthy 
and  productive.  Origin — Philadelphia.  This  is  by  many 
considered,  and  perhaps  justly,  the  very  best  variety  of 
pear. 

Clairgeau. — Fruit  large,  pyriforin,  with  unequal 
sides;  skin  warm  yellow,  inclining  to  fawn,  thickly  sprink- 
led with  large,  yellow  dots,  with  russet  tracings  and  spots, 
shaded  with  orange  and  crimson;  stalk  short  and  stout, 
often  fleshy,  and  inserted  by  a  lip  at  an  inclination,  or  in 
an  uneven  cavity;  calyx  open,  with  stiff  segments;  flesh 
yellowish,  buttery,  very  melting  and  juicy,  with  a  sugary, 
vinous  flavor.  Ripens — Georgia,  September  to  October 
10th;  New  York,  October  to  January.  A  beautiful  fruit, 
often  so  much  larger  and  broader  than  the  cut,  that  it 
could  not  be  figured  on  this  page.  Tree  vigorous,  and  an 
early  and  profuse  bearer. 

Lucrative. — Fruit  medium,  obovate  to  obscure  pyri- 
form;  skin  pale  yellowish-green,  with  dots  and  traces  of 
russet;  stem  varying  from  short,  stout,  and  fleshy,  to  more 


586 


GARDEAIXG    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 


than  an  inch  long,  often  obliquely  inserted  in  a  slight 
cavity;  calyx  open,  in  a  medium  basin;  flesh  fine-grained, 
melting,  full  of  rich,  sugary,  and  delicious  juice.  Ripens — 
Georgia,  in  August;  New  York,  last  of  September.     A 


Fig.  238— Clairgeau. 

Flemish  variety.    Tree  of  moderate  growth,  very  fruitful, 
and  bears  young;  one  of  the  very  best. 

Archangel. — Fruit  above  medium  size,  obovate-pyri- 
form;  skin  smooth,  shining,  greenish-yellow,  sprinkled 
with  russet  dots;    stalk  an  inch  long,  inclined,  fleshy  at 


FEUITS VAEIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  587 

its  insertion,  and  surrounded  by  russet;  calyx  small  and 
closed;  basin  small  and  uneven;  flesh  yellowish-white, 
tender  and  melting,  abundant  in  sugary  juice,  with  an 
agreeable  perfume;  an  excellent  fruit.  Tree  healthy, 
vigorous  and  fruitful.  Ripe — Georgia,  last  of  August; 
New  York,  October. 

Sterling. — Fruit  medium,  and  varying  from  oblate  to 
obovate,  or  obscure  pyriform;  skin  yellow,  with  a  few 
russet  patches,  and  a  mottled  crimson  cheek;  stalk 
medium,  inserted  in  a  slightly  plaited  cavity;  calyx  small, 


Fig.  239— Sterling. 

open,  in  a  medium  basin;  flesh  somewhat  coarse,  juicy, 
melting,  with  a  sugary,  brisk  flavor.  Ripens — Georgia, 
July  15th;  New  York,  the  last  of  August.  Keeps  a  long 
time  after  gathering,  and  is  an  excellent  fruit  to  send  to  a 
distant  market.    Very  desirable.    Tree  vigorous  and  up- 


588  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

right,  with  yellowish-brown  wood.     An  early  and  pro- 
ductive bearer. 

Passe  Colmaii. — Fruit  large,  varying  from  obovate  to 
obtuse-pyriform;  skin  rather  thick,  yellowish-green,  turn- 
ing yellow  when  mature,  a  good  deal  russeted  about  the 
eye  and  at  the  base  of  the  stalk;  stalk  rather  long,  often 
fleslry  at  its  base,  inserted  iu  an  uneven  cavity;  calyx 
open,  in  a  slight,  regular  basin;  flesh  yellowish,  tine,  melt- 
ing and  juicy,  with  a  sweet,  rich,  aromatic  flavor.  A 
rapid  grower  and  profuse  bearer,  but  if  the  fruit  is  not 
well  thinned,  it  will  be  small  and  astringent.  Georgia, 
October  and  November;  New  York,  December. 

Glout  Morceau. — Fruit  large,  varying  in  form  from 
obovate  to  obtuse-pyriform,  and  often  depressed  somej 
what;  skin  pale  greenish-yellow,  marked  with  small  dots, 
russeted  about  the  stem,  with  a  brownish  cheek  on  the 
more  exposed  fruits;  stem  long,  slender,  in  a  slight  cavity; 
calyx  mostly  open,  in  a  rather  deep  basin;  flesh  white, 
fine-grained,  very  melting,  juic3T,  sugary,  and  perfumed. 
A  fine,  pyramidal,  healthy  grower,  and  quite  fruitful. 
Georgia,  October  and  November;  New  York,  December. 

Josephine  de  Malines. — Fruit" medium,  truncate,  ob- 
conic;  skin  yellowish,  somewhat  russeted,  especially 
about,  the  base  and  crown,  and  sprinkled  with  russet  dots; 
stalk  long,  stout,  curved,  inserted  in  a  moderate,  russet- 
lined  cavity;  calyx  small,  open,  with  caducous  segments, 
in  a  slight  basin;  flesh  greenish-white,  buttery,  very  juicy, 
sugary,  melting  and  perfumed.  An  excellent  keeper. 
Georgia,  October  to  January,  and  has  been  kept  until 
March ;  New  York,  November,  and  through  the  winter. 
Tree  productive  and  vigorous. 

Belle  Epine  Dumas  (Duchess  de  Bordeaux). — Fruit 
medium  or  large,  long-pyriform;  skin  green,  becoming 
greenish-yellow  as  it  ripens,  with  small  brown  dots,  and 


FEUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


589 


at  the  South  is  generally  somewhat  marked  with  russet 
about  the  base  and  stem;  stalk  long,  rather  stout,  curved 
a  little,  swollen  at  the  base,  inserted  in  a  slight  depres- 
sion; calyx  small,  partly  closed,  in  a  shallow,  regular 
basin;  flesh  white,  fine,  melting,  juicy,  rich,  sugary,  and 


240— Josephine  de  M alines. 


perfumed;  core  medium,  with  large,  long,  pointed  seeds. 
Georgia,  October;  New  York,  November  and  December. 
Parsonage. — Fruit  medium  or  large,  obovate,  in- 
clining to  obtuxe-pyriform;  skin  warm  yellow,  rough, 
often  shaded  with  dull  crimson,  netted  and  thickly  dotted 
with  russet;  stalk  short,  stout,  curved,  fleshy  at  its  inser 
tion;  calyx  open,  with  short,  stiff  segments,  in  a  russeted, 
shallow  basin;  flesh  white,  somewhat  coarse,  granular, 


590 


GAKDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


sugary,  and   refreshing.     In   Georgia  it  has   kept   until 
November.    Tree  fruitful  and  healthy. 

Columbia. — Fruit  large,  oblong-obovate,  or  pyriform, 
often  simply  obovate,  broadest  in  the  middle;  skin 
smooth,  pale  green,  turning  yellowish  when  ripe,  with  a 


Fig.  241— Columbia. 

soft  brown  cheek,  dotted  with  russet,  with  a  little  russet 
also  about  the  stalk  and  calyx;  stalk  about  an  inch  long, 
rather  stout,  slightly  curved;  calyx  small,  partly  closed, 
in  a  shallow  basin;  flesh  white,  fine-grained,  melting  and 
abundant  in  rich,  sugary  juice.  Ripens  in  Georgia  from 
the  15th  of  August  to  the  last  of  September,  and  is  not 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  591 

excelled  by  any  other  pear;  in  New  York,  November,  and 
is  said  to  be  variable  there,  but  generally  fine. 

St.  Germain  (round). — Fruit  large,  irregular,  oval- 
pyriforni,  tapering  to  the  eye  and  stalk;  skin  yellowish- 
green,  a  good  deal  covered  with  russet,  with  a  brown 
cheek;  stem  stout,  swollen  at  its  insertion,  generally 
planted  obliquely  by  the  side  of  a  small,  fleshy  swelling; 
calyx  small,  open,  in  a  very  shallow  basin  ;  flesh  yellowish- 


Fig.  242— St.  Germain. 

white,  a  little  gritty,  melting,  juicy,  rich  and  sugary. 
Georgia,  October  and  November;  New  York,  November 
and  December.  This  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  pears 
grown  at  the  South.  Tree  healthy  and  productive,  and 
the  smallest  fruits  always  of  excellent  flavor. 


592 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Fig.  244— Lawrence. 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


593 


Winter  Nelis. — Fruit  medium  to  small,  varying  from 
oblate  to  roundish  obovate;  skin  yellowish-green,  but 
generally  a  good  deal  covered  with  russet;  stalk  an  inch 
long,  curved,  and  planted  in  a  narrow  cavity;  calyx  open, 
in  a  shallow  basin,  with  stiff,  short  segments;  flesh  pale 
vellowish-white,     fine-grained,     buttery     and     melting, 


Fig.  245  -Easter  Beurre. 

abounding    in    rich,    sugary,    aromatic    juice.     Ripens — 
Georgia,  in  October;  New  York,  December. 

Lawrence. — Fruit  large,  obovate,  obscurely  pyriform; 
stalk  rather  short,  inclined,  inserted  by  a  lip  or  in  a  slight, 
regular  depression;  cavity  generally  partly  closed,  in  a 
broad,  shallow  basin;  skin  fine  lemon  yellow,  uneven, 
sprinkled  thickly  with  small  dots;  flesh  white,  a  little 
granular,  buttery,  with  a  very  rich,  sugary,  aromatic 
38 


594 


GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 


flavor.  Georgia — September  20th  to  October  20th;  New 
York,  November  to  January.  Tree  of  moderate  growth, 
very  healthy;  an  early  and  abundant  bearer.  Far  the 
most  desirable  pear  of  its  season. 


Fig.  246— LeConte  Pear  (after  S.  H.  Rumph 


Easter  Beurre. — Fruit  large,  obovate  or  obtuse-pyri- 
form;  skin  yellowish-green,  sprinkled  with  large  russet 
dots,  and  marbled  somewhat  with  greenish-russet;  stalk 
rather  stout,  in  abrupt  cavity;  calyx  usually  small, 
closed,  in  a  plaited  basin;  flesh  white,  fine-grained,  but- 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  595 

tery,  juicy,  and  sweet.     Georgia,   November  to  March; 
New  York,  January  to  May.    Succeeds  best  on  quince. 

Jaminette  (Josephine). — Fruit  large,  varying  in  form 
from  obovate,  narrowing  to  the  stalk,  to  oblate;  skin 
green,  turning  to  pale  yellowish-green  when  ripe,  dotted 
with  brown,  and  marked  with  russet;  stalk  rather  short, 


Fig  247— Kieffer  Pear  (after  S.  H.  Rumph) 

obliquely  planted  in  a  slight  depression  (in  obovate  speci- 
mens without  depression),  and  surrounded  with  russet; 
calyx  small,  open,  in  a  slight  basin;  flesh  white,  a  little 
gritty  at  the  core,  juicy,  buttery,  and  sweet.  A  good 
fruit,  but  must  be  eaten  as  it  begins  to  soften,  or  will  be 
found  decayed  at  the  core.     Georgia,  October. 

LeConte. — This    is    a    vigorous     grower,     and     well 
adapted  to  South  Georgia,  Florida  and  the  coasts  of 


596  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Alabama,  Louisiana  and  Texas.  The  fruit  is  very  large; 
skin  smooth  and  light  yellow.  The  tree  is  prolific,  and 
ripens  its  fruit  in  July. 

Kieffer. — This  is  one  of  the  best  pears  for  cooking 
purposes.     It  is  said  to  be  a  seedling  of  the  LeConte  or 


Fig.  248— Superfine. 

Chinese  sand  pear.  It  is  a  very  popular  fruit  in  South 
Georgia  and  Florida.  A  productive  and  valuable  late 
pear.  To  secure  the  best  results  with  this  pear  it  should 
be  grafted  on  a  LeConte  or. Japan  pear  stock. 

The  Georgia  Horticultural  Society  in  the  proceedings 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  597 

for  1896  recommends  the  following  grouping  of  the  varie- 
ties of  pears  for  market  in  the  order  of  maturity: 

On    Quince    Stock. — Giffard,    Archangel,    Superfine, 
Howell,  Duchesse  d'Angouleme,  Seckel,  Buerre  d' Anjou. 


Fig.  249— Anjou. 

Superfine. — This  pear  originated  in  Prance.  The 
fruit  is  round  pyriform,  of  a  yellow-crimson  russet  color, 
and  of  a  butter-melting  texture;  the  flavor  is  vinous. 
The  fruit  is  medium  quality. 

Anjou. — Obtuse  pyriform  shape;  rather  above  medium 
in  size;    color  greenish-crimson;    quality  good,  and  tex- 


oys  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

ture  melting,  with  a  perfumed  vinous  flavor.     The  fruit 
ripens  at  a  medium  date. 

Howell. — This  pear  originated  in  Connecticut.  The 
fruit  is  a  yellowish-red  color;  vinous,  juicy  flavor,  and  it 
is  a  good  dessert  and  market  variety. 


Fig.  250— Howell. 

Garber. — This  is  a  seedling  of  the  Chinese  sand  pear, 
and  is  very  popular  in  many  portions  of  the  South.  It 
ripens  between  the  dates  in  which  the  LeConte  and 
Kieffer  pears  mature,  and  therefore  in  those  orchards 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  599 

where  the  three  varieties  are  found,  a  succession  of  fruit 
is  obtained.    The  tree  bears  young  and  abundantly. 

On  Standard.— Doyenne  d'Ete,  Clapp's  Favorite, 
Bartlett,  Lucrative,  LeConte,  Flemish,  Clairgeau,  Law- 
rence, Kieffer,  Easter,  and  Winter  Nelis. 

Oriental  Type. — Mikado,  Garber,  Mme.  Von  Siebold. 

The  (Smith  pear  is  highly  endorsed  by  the  Florida 
Horticultural  Society  as  equal  to  the  LeConte  in  its  vigor 
and  productiveness,  and  having  the  advantage,  perhaps, 
in  earliness  and  quality. 

Pears  suitable  for  Middle  Virginia,  Western  North 
Carolina,  North  South  Carolina,  North  Georgia,  North- 
east Alabama,  .Middle  Tennessee: 

Angouleme,  Duchess  de,  Lawrence, 

Anjou,  Giffard, 

Bartlett,  Garber, 

Bloodgood,  Louise  Bonne  de  Jersey, 

Bosc,  Lucrative, 

Brandy  wine,  Madeleine, 

Clairgeau,  Malines,  Josephine  de, 

Columbia,  Seckel, 

Easter  Beurre,  Summer  Doyenne, 

Howell,  Superfine, 

Kieffer,  White  Doyenne, 
Winter  Nelis. 

Pears  suitable  for  Eastern  Virginia,  Eastern  North 
Carolina,  southern  half  of  South  Carolina,  southern  half 
of  Georgia,  all  of  Alabama  except  the  northeastern  por- 
tions, Mississippi,  Southern  Arkansas,  North  Louisiana, 
and  Eastern  Texas: 

Angouleme,  Duchess  de,        Lawrence, 
Garber,  LeConte, 

Kieffer,  Seckel. 


600  GARDENING    FOE,    THE    SOUTH. 

Pears  suitable  for  Southern  Louisiana  and  Florida: 

Garber,  LeConte, 

Kieffer,  Smith. 

Marketing. — The  fruit  must  be  gathered  before  fully 
ripe,  because  otherwise  it  will  be  too  mellow  for  shipping 
properly.  It  will  ripen  sufficiently  in  transit.  Tack  in 
the  same  manner  recommended  for  apples,  in  half-bushel 
crates,  or,  if  the  crop  is  a  large  one,  in  barrels.  Face  up 
as  directed  for  appl 

PERSIMMON.— f  Diospyros.) 

American  Persimmon  or  Date  Plum  (D.  Virgin  iana, 
L.). — This  tree  is  very  common  in  its  wild  condition 
throughout  the  South,  and,  not  until  within  recent  years, 
has  any  systematic  effort  been  put  forth  to  improve  the 
fruit  by  cultivation. 

In  its  wild  condition  the  fruit  of  the  persimmon  varies 
greatly  in  size  and  flavor.  Some  are  large  and  more  or 
less  pleasant  to  the  taste,  while  others  are  quite  small 
and  varying  also  in  the  degre  of  palatableness.  Within 
recent  years  a  number  of  improved  varieties  have  been 
developed  by  experimenters,  until  new  we  have  more 
than  a  dozen  excellent  forms  which  produce  fruit  of 
superior  quality.  The  following  are  some  of  the  best, 
described  by  the  Pomological  Division  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  Indiana  Ex- 
periment Station: 

Daniel  Boone. — The  fruit  is  roundish  oblate;  yellow, 
with  a  dull  blush  in  the  sun.  Skin  rather  tough  ami 
seeds  numerous;  quality  good,  though  net  so  rich  as  some 
other  varieties.  Season,  October  and  November.  Tree 
handsome,  productive,  and  a  vigorous  grower,  with  very 
large,  thick  leaves. 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


601 


Early  Bearing. — This  was  introduced  by  James  Lit- 
tle, Cartersburg,  Hendricks  county,  Indiana.  Fruit, 
round-ovate;  medium  to  large;  dull  yellow  and  of  good 
quality.  Ripens  earlier  than  Daniel  Boone,  and,  though 
smaller,  is  a  more  desirable  variety.  The  tree  is  a  good 
grower,  early  bearer,  and  very  productive. 


■m 

":j5fc ,  _ 

Fig.  251 — Daniel  Boone.     Reduced.     Indiana  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  Bulletin  60. 


Early  Golden. — Oblong,  medium  to  large,  rich  yel- 
low color,  very  sweet,  and  of  excellent  quality;  skin  thick 
and  seeds  few  in  number.  Ripens  in  September  without 
frost.  Twigs  and  under  side  of  leaves  covered  with 
whitish  down.  Tree  productive  and  handsome.  Intro- 
duced from  Illinois. 


602 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Golden  Gem. — Koundish  or  slightly  oblong;  medium 
to  large  in  size;  color  dark  red  orange  to  red;  seeds  few; 
flesh  soft,  very  sweet  and  rich;  free  from  astringency, 
even  if  picked  before  fully  ripe.  Commences  to  ripen 
about  the  last  of  August  and  continues  till  October.  This 
variety  was  brought  to  notice  by  Mr.  Logan  Martin,  of 


Fig.  252— Early  Bearing.     Reduced.    Indiana  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  Bulletin  60. 


Borden,  Indiana,  who  found  the  original  tree  on  his  farm 
thirty-five  years  ago.  He  has  propagated  from  this  by 
budding,  and  now  has  more  than  three  hundred  trees, 
including  top-worked  wild  and  young  trees  growing  in 
the  nursery.  He  reports  that  the  persimmon  pays  him 
better  than  any  other  fruit. 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


60:3 


Hicks  (synonym  Superior). — Originated  by  E.  H.  True- 
blood,  Indiana.  A  choice  native  variety,  the  trees  of 
which  have  been  propagated  and  their  fruit  marketed 
locally  for  many  years.  Size  medium;  color  dull,  grayish 
red;  seeds  somewhat  numerous,  of  medium  size;  flavor 
sweet  and  rich,  free  from  astringency  when  fully  ripe; 


Fig.  253 — Golden  Gem.     Reduced.     Indiana  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  Bulletin  60. 

very  good.  Specimens  of  the  fruit  of  this  varietj",  dried 
in  the  shade  without  sugar,  were  found  to  be  of  excellent 
quality,  and  almost  equal  to  imported  dates.  Mr.  Hicks 
reports  that  the  fruit  begins  ripening  early  and  continues 
for  a  period  of  six  weeks,  and  that  the  tree  is  very  pro- 
ductive. The  orignal  tree  has  not  failed  to  fruit  annually 
for  the  past  twenty-five  years. 


604  GARDEXIXG    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

KEMrER. — We  have  not  ascertained  the  history  of  this 
variety,  but  learned  from  a  report  of  the  Division  of 
Pomology,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
that  it  was  originated  in  Tennessee,  and  is  one  of  the 
best  varieties  thus  far  named  and  introduced. 

Kansas. — This  was  introduced  from  Missouri.  The 
fruit  is  roundish,  slightly  oblate;  rather  large;  splashed 
with  red  on  yellow  ground ;  flesh  tender,  rich,  and  highly 
flavored.  Season,  September.  The  tree  is  productive 
and  is  very  handsome  in  general  appearance. 

Marion. — Originated  by  Samuel  Miller,  Missouri.  This 
native  persimmon  is  a  large,  handsome  fruit,  with  few 
seeds,  ripening  in  October.  The  original  tree  was  found 
growing  near  Fulton,  Missouri,  on  land  owned  by  J.  H. 
Marion,  and  is  said  to  have  larger  leaves  and  blossoms 
than  the  common  persimmon. 

Shoto. — This  variety  was  introduced  by  A.  (J.  Cham- 
bers, Danville,  Hendricks  county,  Indiana.  The  fruit  is 
oblong-ovate,  slightly  conical;  large  to  very  large;  color 
dull  yellow,  with  blush  in  the  sun;  rather  tough  skin  and 
few  seeds;  quality  very  good.  Season,  October.  Tree  an 
early  bearer,  productive,  and  a  vigorous  grower.  The 
original  tree  began  bearing  at  three  years  of  age. 

Smeech. — Fruit,  roundish-oblate;  medium  size;  dull 
yellow,  with  red  splashes;  superior  quality,  being  very 
rich  and  sweet.  Tree  a  good  grower  and  productive.  In- 
troduced from  Pennsylvania. 

Propagation. — The  persimmon  grows  readily  from  seed, 
but  there  is  no  certainty  that  fruit,  even  equal  to  that 
produced  by  the  original  tree,  will  be  obtained.  It  is 
therefore  best  to  graft  on  the  common  wild  stock  in  early 
spring.  The  splice  or  cleft  method  of  grafting  can  be 
used  with  success.  The  stock  should  be  healthy  and  from 
one  to  two  inches  in  diameter.    For  a  description  of  these 


FBUITS VABIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


60  ; 


methods  of  grafting  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  chapter 
devoted  to  this  subject.  The  trees  should  be  planted  in 
the  orchard  with  ample  space  to  allow  for  future  growth 
and  expansion.  Twenty  to  thirty  feet  will  not  be  too 
much  space  between  the  trees  and  between  the  rows. 


Fig.  254— Shoto.    Reduced.    Indiana  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin  60. 

Frequent  cultivation  by  plowing  and  harrowing  will  im- 
prove the  condition  and  growth  of  the  trees. 

Japan  Persimmon  (D.  kali). — This  species  of  the  per- 
simmon was  introduced  into  the  United  States  a  number 
of  years  ago  from  Japan,  and  it  is  well  known  among  all 
horticulturists  throughout  the  country.  The  trees  grow 
to  a  remarkable  degree  of  perfection  in  the  South,  and 


CO  6 


(iARDKXIN'O     F(>I{     THE    SOCHI. 


the  fruit  is  larger  and  superior  in  quality  to  the  Ameri- 
can species. 

In  its  propagation  and  cultivation  the  same  methods 
are  used  as  practiced  with  the  American  persimmon. 
When  grafted  on  the  native  plant  the  Japan  persimmon 


Fig.  255— Costata  Persimmon.     Div.  Pomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 

becomes  peculiarly  suited  to  the  South,  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  any  other  section  of  the  country  can  produce  the 
fruit  of  equal  perfection  in  quality.  There  are  few  ene- 
mies known  to  attack  it,  and  it  is  a  very  prolific  and 
vigorous  tree.    The  character  of  the  fruit  varies  consider- 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


607 


ably  with  the  varieties.  Some  produce  dark  flesh,  while 
others  give  a  lighter  shade  in  color.  These  two  classes 
also  differ  in  taste.  The  dark  flesh  kinds  may  be  eaten 
with  relish  before  they  are  quite  ripe,  and  there  is  not 
the  unpleasant  astringent  taste  detected  in  the  light 
flesh  colored  kinds  before  fully  ripe.  Of  course  all  fruit 
of  the  persimmon  becomes  much  improved  when  com- 
pletely matured.  The  dark  flesh  kinds  also  give  more 
seeds  that  the  light  flesh  varieties.  Some  of  the  latter 
are  termed  seedless. 


Fig.  2.56 — Hyakume  Persimmon.     Div.  Pomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 

The  best  varieties  of  the  Japan  persimmon  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

Costata. — Size  above  medium,  salmon  red,  round 
conical  pointed,  quality  fair,  ripens  late.  The  flesh  is 
light  yellow,  with  very  few  seeds.  The  fruit  will  keep  a 
long  time  after  pulled  from  the  tree.  Tree  vigorous  and 
rather  ornamental  with  broad  leaves. 

Hachiya. — Very  large,  weighing  as  much  as  ten 
ounces;  obovate  pointed,  dark  red  with  deep  yellow  flesh, 
few  seeds  and  an  astringent  taste  until  fully  ripe.  Fruit 
ripens  early;  good  grower,  but  rather  shy  bearer. 


608 


GAliDEA'IXG    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


round  obovate,  orange  red,  quality  good  and  ripens  near 
the  middle  of  the  season.     The  flesh  is  yellow  in  color, 


Fig.  257— Okaine. 

Okame. — Large  fruit,  dark  red  on  the  skin  and  round 
oblate.  Good  quality  and  medium  early  in  ripening.  This 
is  not  a  favorite  market  variety,  because  of  the  difficulty 


FKL'ITS VARIETIES    AND    CTLTUKE. 


609 


in  getting  all  of  the  fruit  to  ripen  uniformly,  but  it  is 
highly  prized  for  home  use  because  of  the  long  season, 
the  beauty  and  fine  quality  of  the  fruit.  It  is  called  one 
of  the  seedless  varieties. 

Tanenashi. — This  is  one  of  the  best  in  flavor  of  all 
the  Japan  persimmons.    The  fruit  is  large,  round  conical 


Fig.  25S—  Yeddo-ichi  Persimmon. 

pointed,  brown  in  color,  and  the  flesh  an  orange  yellow. 
This  is  an  excellent  market  variety. 

Yeddo-ichi. — This  is  also  an  excellent  fruit  in  quality; 
medium  size,  round  oblate,  dark  red,  flesh  mahogany 
brown,  with  dark  spots.  The  tree  is  upright  and  a  pro- 
lific bearer. 

Yemon. — With  some  authorities  this  fruit  stands  third 

39 


610  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

in  the  degree  of  excellency.  The  astringency  in  this  fruit 
disappears  as  it  begins  to  soften;  it  is  a  large  fruit,  round 
conical  pointed,  skin  salmon  red  and  flesh  deep  red.  The 
tree  is  vigorous  and  productive. 

Zengi. — One  of  the  earliest  to  ripen,  and  is  edible  from 
the  middle  of  September  until  the  latter  part  of  October. 
The  flesh  is  dark  brown  and  the  quality  is  good.  This  is 
one  of  the  seedy  varieties. 


Fig.  259 — Zengi  Persimmon. 


Marketing. — The  persimmon  should  not  be  marketed 
until  the  astringency  has  been  destroyed  by  the  fruit  be- 
ing fully  ripe.  Many  of  the  varieties  can  be  picked  be- 
fore entirely  ripened  and  housed  in  a  well-ventilated 
place  until  the  ripening  is  completed,  when  they  may  be 
packed  in  baskets  used  for  strawberries.  When  the  fruit 
is  left  on  the  trees  until  after  frost  strikes  it  the  keeping- 
qualities  are  greatly  reduced,  but  if  it  is  gathered  before 
frost  and  just  before  fully  ripe  the  fruit  will  generally 
keep  for  a  month.  A  little  experience  will  determine  this 
point  with  accuracy. 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  611 

PINEAPPLES. — ( Ananassa  saliva.) 

There  are  at  least  twenty  varieties  of  the  pineapple 
cultivated  in  Florida,  but  the  following  are  considered  to 
be  the  standard  forms. 

Cayenne  (smooth). — Conical  form,  above  medium  in 
size,  yellow  color,  best  quality  in  taste.  The  plant  pro- 
duces broad  leaves,  almost  free  from  spines,  which  is  a 
great  advantage  in  its  cultivation.  It  does  not  yield 
slips,  and  it  is  therefore  difficult  to  propagate. 

Egyptian  Queen. — Fruit  medium  size,  conical,  yellow 
color;  excellent  quality.  This  plant  is  also  cultivated  for 
market  purposes,  but  on  a  limited  extent. 

Pernambugo. — leather  small,  oblong,  yellow  in  color, 
and  of  excellent  quality. 

Porto  Rico. — Is  a  general  favorite;  the  fruit  is  large, 
round,  yellow  with  a  good  flavor,  but  not  equal  to  the 
last  two.  The  plant  is  robust  and  produces  well;  it 
is  an  excellent  shipping  fruit.  The  plant  forms  an  abund- 
ance of  suckers  and  slips. 

Ripley  Queen. — Medium  size,  conical,  yellow  in  color, 
and  very  good  quality. 

Red  Spanish. — Also  called  "  Black  Spanish/'  "  Ha- 
vana," "  Strawberry,"  "  Scarlet  Key,"  etc.  It  is  generally 
cultivated  for  the  market,  although  it  is  not  equal  to  the 
other  varieties  in  flavor.  It  is,  however,  hardy,  easier  to 
cultivate  and  stands  the  varying  conditions  better.  The 
size  of  the  fruit  is  medium,  round,  yellowish  red  in  color. 

In  propagating  the  pineapple  several  methods  are 
used. 

1.  From  suckers,  which  grow  near  the  base  of  the 
plant. 

2.  From  "  rattoons,"  which  are  the  buds  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  shooting  up  into  suckers. 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  613 

3.  From  slips  produced  by  buds  just  uuder  the  fruit. 

4.  From  the  crowns  at  the  top  of  the  fruit. 

5.  From  seeds. 

The  suckers,  either  from  the  buds  above  or  below  the 
ground,  are  strong  and  vigorous.  The  rattoons  are  gen- 
erally left  on  the  parent  plant  to  grow  to  maturity  with- 
out transplanting.  These  will  usually  fruit  in  about  one 
year.  The  suckers  from  the  buds  above  ground  are 
broken  off  and  transplanted.  The  slips  are  smaller  than 
the  suckers,  and  are  more  abundant  on  the  parent  plant. 
These  slips  are  also  broken  off  after  the  fruit  is  har- 
vested, and  after  they  mature,  which  may  be  determined 
by  the  brown  color  of  the  stem  at  the  base,  and  they  are 
transplanted.  Fruit  is  produced  by  the  slips  in  about 
two  years.  Propagating  by  slips  is  the  usual  method 
practiced' by  the  Florida  growers,  because  it  is  thought 
that  better  fruit  is  produced  than  that  obtained  from 
suckers.  The  crown  is  generally  shipped  with  the  fruit 
when  it  is  sent  to  market,  so  that  this  method  of  propa- 
gating is  seldom  adopted.  Reproduction  by  planting  the 
seed  is  resorted  to  sometimes  when  it  is  desired  to  de- 
velop new  varieties. 

In  planting  the  soil  must  be  well  prepared  and  cleared 
of  all  weeds  and  trash.  The  plants  are  set  out  in  beds 
18x20,  20x22,  or  30x36  inches  apart,  depending  upon  the 
size  of  the  plant.  The  offsets  are  prepared  by  trimming 
and  smoothly  paring  a  few  of  the  lower  leaves  to  encour- 
age the  rapid  formation  of  roots.  Plant  at  least  three 
inches  deep  in  the  soil  in  the  case  of  suckers,  and  about 
two  inches  in  the  case  of  slips.  July,  August  and  Sep- 
tember are  the  months  in  which  the  transplanting  is 
done.     An  acre  generally  holds  about  9,000  plants. 

The  fertilizer  used  is  one  rich  in  nitrogen.  This  may 
be  secured  in  cottonseed-meal  or  fish  guano,  applied  at 
the  rate  of  1,000  or  1,500  pounds  per  acre.     Florida  soft 


614  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

phosphate,  kainit  or  potash  salts  and  cottonseed-meal 
will  make  a  good  fertilizer. 

Cultivating  under  open  sheds  is  now  practiced  in  some 
portions  of  Florida,  and  strong  claims  have  been  made 
concerning  the  merits  of  the  system.  It  is  claimed  that 
the  fruit  matures  sooner,  is  larger  and  better  flavored 
than  when  grown  in  the  open  field.  The  moisture  is  not 
so  rapidly  evaporated,  and  the  soil  is  therefore  kept  in 
better  condition.  These  sheds  are  covered  with  slats 
1x3  inches  and  18  feet  long,  separated  3  inches,  so  that 
sunlight  can  enter.  The  north  and  west  sides  are  boarded 
up. 

Marketing. — The  fruit  is  gathered  just  before  ripe  by 
breaking  from  the  plant,  care  being  taken  not  to  bruise 
it.  It  is  taken  to  the  packing-house  and  cooled.  The 
stem  is  neatly  trimmed,  and  the  entire  fruit  is  wrapped 
in  paper.  The  crown  is  not  cut  off.  The  style  of  crate 
used  is  what  is  known  as  barrel  or  half-barrel  crates.  In 
the  first  eight  to  ten  pineapples  are  packed,  and  the 
latter  is  used  to  ship  the  fancy  varieties  of  fruit. 

PLITM.— (Prunus.) 

The  plum  tree  is  probably  a  native  of  Asia,  whence  it 
was  early  introduced  into  European  gardens.  The  tree 
grows  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  high,  and  is  conspicu- 
ous early  in  spring  for  its  white  blossoms. 

Loudon  asserts  that  probably  the  natural  color  of 
the  fruit  is  black;  but  the  cultivated  varieties  are  of 
various  shades  of  green,  yellow,  red  and  blue.  It  is  a 
delicious  dessert  fruit,  in  its  best  varieties,  and  is  very 
much  esteemed  for  pies,  tarts  and  preserves. 

It  is  also  dried  for  winter  use.  The  prune,  or  dried 
plum,  enters  considerably  into  commerce.  When  fully 
ripe,  plums    are,  in  moderate    quantity,  very  nutritious 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  615 

and  wholesome,  but  in  an  unripe  state  are  more  apt  to 
disagree  with  the  stomach  than  most  other  fruits. 

Prunes  are  dried  by  artificial  heat.  They  are  laid 
singly,  without  touching  each  other,  on  plates,  which  are 
placed  in  ovens,  after  the  bread  is  removed,  or  in  kilns 
prepared  for  the  purpose,  and  occasionally  moved  and 
turned.  In  order  to  have  them  fair  and  glossy,  they  must 
be  suddenly  cooled  when  taken  from  the  oven.  They 
should  be  dried  carefully  and  gradually.  They  are  excel- 
lent when  dried  with  sugar,  as  directed  for  peaches. 
From  the  analysis  of  the  stones,  bark,  leaves  and  wood, 
it  is  evident  that  common  salt  is  one  of  the  most  essential 
manures  to  apply  to  the  soil  in  which  the  plum  is  culti- 
vated. Burnt  clay,  swamp  muck,  common  salt,  and  wood 
ashes  are  among  the  best  fertilizers. 

Propagation  and  Culture. — The  plum  is  generally  bud- 
ded or  grafted  upon  stocks  raised  from  the  seed  of  some 
free-growing  variety.  The  Chickasaw  plum,  however, 
makes  a  very  good  stock;  it  should  be  grafted  at  the 
collar,  and  transplanted  so  deep  that  the  scions  can 
throw  out  roots.  This  stock  makes  very  pretty  dwarf 
trees  for  the  garden.  By  this  mode,  the  tree  can  be  pro- 
pagated at  any  time  during  the  winter  months. 

Stone  fruits  require  to  be  grafted  early  in  the  season. 
In  transplanting  where  they  are  to  remain  they  should 
be  twelve  feet  apart.  The  best  soil  for  the  plum  is  a 
heavy  clay  loam,  moderately  rich.  As  the  plum  throws 
out  long,  straggling  branches,  which  are  unsightly  and 
unproductive,  this  should  be  remedied  by  shortening  in, 
as  with  the  peach,  so  as  to  form  a  round,  compact  head. 
Most  stone  fruits  require  to  be  shortened  in,  more  or  less, 
or  the  growth  becomes  unsightly  and  the  tree  short-lived. 
It  is  an  excellent  plan,  where  practicable,  to  plant  a 
tree  or  two  near  the  door  of  the  house  and  kitchen,  where 
there   is   considerable   passing   and    repassing,  and    the 


<Jl<>  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


fested  by  the  great  enemy  to  stone  fruit — the  curculio — 
which  is  quite  a  timid,  as  well  as  cunning,  insect. 

Species. — There  are  seven  distinct  species  of  the 
Prunus  grown  in  this  country,  viz.:  Prunus  Americana,  or 
native  group;  Prunus  angustifolia,  or  Chickasaw  group; 
Prunus  hortulana,  or  wild  goose  group;  Primus  domesiica, 
or  European  group;  Prunus  cerasifera,  or  Marianna  group; 
I 'run  us  iriflora,  or  Japanese  group;  Primus  puiuila.  A 
great  many  varieties  have  been  developed  from  these 
species,  some  of  which  have  been  cultivated  in  the  South- 
ern States  for  a  long  period  of  time. 

VARIETIES. 

Prunus  Angustifolia. 

Caddo  Chief. — Fruit  red,  oval,  small;  ripens  about 
the  middle  of  May. 

Lone  Star. — Fruit  red,  oval,  small;  ripens  in  middle 
summer;  quality  fair.    This  plum  originated  in  Texas. 

Newman. — Fruit  rather  large,  oval,  yellow,  quality 
very  good;  ripens  in  Middle  Alabama  from  July  8th  to 
August  25th.     The  tree  is  low  and  spreading. 

Yellow  Transparent. — Originated  in  Texas;  good 
market  plum;  fruit  large,  oval,  yellow,  and  it  ripens 
early. 

Prunus  Hortulana. 

Cumberland. — Fruit  average  size,  round,  yellow  in 
color  and  sweet  flavored.  Originated  near  Augusta, 
Georgia,  from  seed  secured  in  the  Cumberland  Moun- 
tains.   The  fruit  ripens  about  the  latter  part  of  August. 

Golden  Beauty. — An  excellent  plum  which  was  origi- 
nated in  Texas.  The  fruit  is  round-ovate,  dark  yellow, 
medium  late. 


FKUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


617 


Wild  Goose. — A  cling  stone  variety,  sweet  and  good 
quality,  small,  round  and  purple  in  color.  Kipens  early 
in  June,  and  is  an  excellent  market  plum. 

Missouri. — Fruit  rather  large,  round  and  deep  yellow. 
Excellent  quality.    Late. 

Primus  Domestica. 


'^^^^^a^S^S^^^ 

f 

Im                      ^Sm^KB&k 
%                      11 

'4 

Wjjm 

Fig.  260— German  Prune  (after  Bailey).      Primus  domestica. 
Cornell  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  131. 

Bingham. — Fruit  large,  oval;  skin  deep  yellow,  spot- 
ted with  red  toward  the  sun;  stalk  in  a  small  cavity;  iiesh 
yellow,  juicy,  rich  and  delicious;  clingstone;  tree  a  fine 
grower  and  good  bearer.    Ripens  July  1st. 

Columbia. — Very  large,  roundish;  skin  brownish-pur- 


618  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOOTH. 

pie,  with  fawn-colored  specks;  bloom  thick  and  blue; 
stalk  an  inch  long,  stout,  in  a  narrow  cavity;  flesh  orange, 
not  very  juicy,  sugary,  rich,  and  excellent;  freestone. 
Ripe  June  20th.  A  magnificent  variety,  of  excellent 
quality.     Tree  hardy  and  productive. 

Damson  (French  Damson,  Free  Damson,  Purple  Dam- 
son, Blue  Damson). — Fruit  small,  oval  and  purple,  with 
a  decided  bloom.  Flavor  rather  acid.  Very  productive. 
Suitable  for  cooking.    Late. 

Duane's  Purple. — Branches  downy ;  fruit  very  large, 
oblong,  swollen  on  one  side  of  the  suture;  skin  reddish- 


Fig.  261— Green  Gage. 

purple  in  the  sun,  paler  in  the  shade,  dotted  sparsely 
with  yellow  specks,  and  covered  with  lilac  bloom;  stalk 
slender,  of  medium  length,  in  a  narrow  cavity;  flesh 
amber-colored,  juicy,  sprightly,  moderately  sweet,  adher- 
ing partially  to  the  stone.  Ripe — Georgia,  July  10th; 
New  York,  August  10th,  with  the  Washington. 

Green  Gage. — Fruit  medium  size;  freestone;  ripens 
in  August. 

Jefferson. — Fruit  of  the  largest  size,  roundish  oval; 
stalk  an  inch  long,  pretty  stout;  suture  distinct;  skin 
golden  yellow,  purplish-red  on  the  sunny  side,  and  thinly 
covered  with  white  bloom;  flesh  deep  orange,  a  little  dry, 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  C19 

good;  not  equal  to  the  description  in  the  books.  As  the 
tree  bears  abundantly,  and  the  fruit  ripens  late,  hangs 
long  on  the  tree,  and  is  entirely  free  from  decay,  it  is 
indispensable.  The  handsomest  of  all  plums.  Ripens 
last  of  July  and  first  of  August. 

Imperial  Gage. — Fruit  large,  oval,  greenish-yellow; 


Fig.  262— Jefferson. 

quality  excellent.    Ripens  in  July,  and  it  is  very  produc- 
tive. 

Lombard. — Fruit  medium  size,  round-ovate,  violet  red 
in  color,  flesh  yellow;  good  quality.  This  plum  is  adapted 
to  light  soils,  and  it  is  an  early,  productive  variety. 

Prince's  Yellow  Gage. — Fruit  medium  size,  broad- 
est toward  the  stalk;  suture  slight;  skin  golden  yellow, 
slightly  clouded,  and  with  copious  white  bloom;  stalk 
an  inch  long,  inserted  in  a  small  cavity;  flesh  deep  yel- 


620 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


low,  sweet,  juicy,  and  fine  flavored;  freestone;  tree  very 
productive;  fruit  lasts  a  long  time.  One  of  the  best  for 
a  long  time  in  this  climate.    Ripe  June  10th. 


Fig.  263— Imperial  Gage. 


Fig.  264— Lombard. 


Fig.  265— Prince's  Yellow  Gage. 


2(Jb' — Washington. 


Red  Magnum  Bonum,  or  Purple  E<;<;. — Large  and 
beautiful ;  egg-shaped ;  violet  red,  deeper  in  the  sun,  with 


FEUITS VARIETIES    AXD    CULTURE.  621 

small  gray  dots;  flesh  greenish,  rather  firm,  juicy,  and 
agreeably  subacid;  freestone.  A  fair  plum  for  the  table, 
and  makes  the  best  of  preserves.  Ripens  July  10th.  Not 
much  subject  to  rot. 

Rivers'  Early  Favorite. — Fruit  medium,  or  a  little 
below,  roundish  oval,  with  a  shallow  suture;  stalk  very 
short;  skin  deep  blackish-purple,  sprinkled  with  russet 
dots,  and  covered  with  a  thin,  blue  bloom;  flesh  greenish- 
yellow,  very  juicy,  sweet,  of  excellent  flavor,  separating 
freely  from  the  small  stone;  shoots,  slender,  slightly 
downy.  Ripens — Georgia,  June  15th  to  30th;  New  York, 
August  1st.  An  excellent,  early,  dessert  plum,  following 
immediately  the  Jaime  Hative.    Productive. 

Washington. — Tree  vigorous;  leaves  large,  broad, 
glossy  and  rumpled;  wood  light  brown;  fruit  very  large, 
roundish  oval;  suture  shallow,  except  at  the  stalk;  skin 
pale  greenish-yellow,  faintly  marbled  with  green, 
changing  at  maturity  to  darker  yellow,  with  a  bright 
blush  in  the  sun;  stalk  short,  in  a  shallow,  wide  cavity; 
flesh  yellow,  firm,  sweet,  and  luscious;  stone  pointed,  and 
separates  freely.  Ripens — Georgia,  early  in  July;  New 
York,  the  latter  half  of  August.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
attractive  and  desirable  varieties  in  all  sections. 

Primus  Cerasifera. 
DeCaradeuc. — This  plum  ripens  early  in  June,  and  is 
sweet  and  juicy.  The  fruit  is  round,  medium  size,  yellow, 
.with  brown  red  tinge. 

Primus  Triflora.* 
These  plums  have  become  very  popular  within  the 
past  ten  or  fifteen  years,  and  many  varieties  have  been 
developed  from  the  original  species.    The  propagation  is 


*The  illustrations  accompanying  the  descriptions  of  the  Japan  plums  are 
by  Prof.  L.  H.  Bailey,  of  Cornell  University  Experiment  Station. 


622 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


accomplished  by  budding  on  stocks  of  the  Marianna  plum 
of  the  cerasifera  species,  or  on  peach  roots.  The  follow- 
ing represent  some  of  the  best  varieties: 

Abundance,  or  Yellow  Botan  (similar  to  Chase). — 


Fig.  267 — Japanese  Plum.     Abundance  (after  Bailey).     Botan. 
Cornell  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  106. 


One  of  the  best  of  the  group,  and  more  widely  planted 
than,  possibly,  any  other  species.  It  ripens  its  fruit  in 
the  latter  part  of  June.  The  fruit  is  round-ovate,  above 
the   average   size,    brownish-red    in    color,   with   yellow 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  bVd 

ground,  flesh  yellow.  Thinning  the  fruit  increases  the 
size. 

Berckmans,  or  Sweet  Botan. — Named  in  honor  of 
Mr.  P.  J.  Berckmans,  of  Augusta,  Georgia.  The  fruit  is 
large,  green  in  color,  with  a  dull  purple  hue.  Freestone 
and  good  quality.    Ripens  the  latter  part  of  June. 

Burbank. — The  fruit  is  round  and  above  medium  size, 


Fig.  268— Japanese  Plums.    Berckmans  (after  Bailey).    True  Sweet 

Botan.     Sweet  Botan.     White  Flesh  Botan.     Botan. 

Cornell  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  139. 

purple  yellow.    Kipens  the  latter  part  of  July.    The  tree 
has  a  spreading  habit. 

Chabot  (Bailey,  Yellow  Japan,  Chase). — The  fruit  is 
medium  size,  round-ovate,  red  tinged  with  purple.  Fol- 
lows Burbank  in  ripening  towards  the  end  of  July.  The 
flavor  is  somewhat  acid.  Clingstone. 

Louisiana  (Normand,  No.  15). — This  plum  originated 


6l>4 


OAi;r>i:.\i\<;    for    the    south. 


with  Mr.  J.  L.  Normand,  of  Marksville,  Louisiana;  it  is  a 
hybrid  of  the  Japan  and  native  plum. 

Kelsey. — A  very  large  plum,  round-ovate,  yellowish- 
red,    excellent    flavor    and    juicy.     Semi-clingstone,    pit 


Fig.  269— Burbank  Plum.     Division  of  Pomology, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

small.     Ripens    from    the    middle  of  July  to  the  end  of 
August.     One  of  the  best  Japan  plums. 

Kerr  (Hattankio,  2). — Fruit  ovate,  yellow  in  color  and 
average  size;  fine  flavor,  juicy  and  subacid;  clingstone. 
Ripens  about  the  middle  of  June. 

Normand. — Fruit  rather  above  medium,  round,  in- 
clining to  heart-shaped,  skin  and  flesh  yellow,  with  fine 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTUftE.  bH.J 

flavor.     Freestone.     The    tree    grows    to  a  symmetrical 
shape. 

Red  June  and  Red  Negate. — By    some    authorities 
these  two  forms  are  pronounced  to  be  the  same,  but  they 


Fig.  270— Japanese  Plum.     Chabot  (after  Bailey).     Bailey.     Yellow  Japan. 
Chase. 'Cornell  Experiment  Bulletin  106. 


are  sold  by  the  nurserymen  as  distinct  varieties.  The 
Red  June  produces  a  fruit  of  average  size,  heart-shaped, 
dark  red,  with  a  decided  bloom,  making  a  handsome 
plum.  This  is  a  fine  early  variety.  The  tree  is  a  vigorous 
grower,  and  very  productive. 

40 


626 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Satsuma. — Sometimes  called  Blood  plum,  because  of 
the  dark  red  color  of  the  fruit.  Size  average  to  above 
medium,  round  to  broad  conical.    The  flavor  is  excellent. 

Plums  suitable  for  Middle  Virginia,  Middle  North 
Carolina,  Northern  South  Carolina,  Northern  Georgia, 
Northeastern  Alabama,  and  Middle  Tennessee: 


Fig.  271— Japanese  Plums.     Louisiana  (after  Bailey).     Normand  No.  15. 
Cornell  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  139.1 


Abundance, 

Green  Gage,  or  Bavay, 

Burba  nk, 

Chabot, 

Columbia, 

Damson, 


Duane  Purple, 

Imperial  Gage, 

Jefferson, 

Kerr  (Hattankio,  2), 

Lombard, 

Newman, 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


027 


Prince  Yellow, 


Sat  sum  a, 
Washington, 


Wild  Goose. 
Flunis  suitable  for  Eastern  Virginia,  Eastern  North 


Fig.  272—1.   Kelsey  P'mm.      2.  Satsuma  Plum. 
(Div.  Pomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.) 

Carolina,  Southern  South  Carolina,  Southern  Georgia, 
all  of  Alabama  except  the  northeastern  portions,  Missis- 
sippi, Southern  Arkansas,  Western  Tennessee,  Northern 
Louisiana,  Eastern  Texas: 


6-28 


GARDENING     FOB    THE    .SOUTH. 


Abundance, 
Berckmans, 
Burbank, 
Caddo  Chief, 
Caradeuc  de, 
Chabot, 
Cumberland, 
Georgeson  (LTattankio), 


Golden  Beauty, 
Kerr  (Ilattankio,  2), 
Lone  Star, 
Newman, 
lied  Negate, 
Satsuma, 

Transparent,  Yellow, 
Wild  Goose. 


Fig.  273— Japanese  Plum.     Red  June  (after  Bailey).     Shiro-Smouo.     Cornell 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin  106. 

Plums  suitable  for  Southern  Louisiana  and  Florida: 


Babcock, 

Berckmans, 
Burbank, 


Kelsey, 
Satsuma, 
Wild  Goose. 


Marketing. — Pick  the  fruit  just  before  ripe,  so  that  it 
will  not  decay  in  transit.     The  ripening  will  take  place 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


629 


Pack  carefully 
either  in  climax  maskets  or  in  24-quart  strawberry  cases. 
It  is  best  to  use  smaller  cases  than  usually  adopted  in 
shipping  other  fruit,  but  one-third    bushel    crates    will 


Fig.  274— Japanese  Plum.   Georgeson  (after  Bailey).    Hattankio  No.  1. 
Hattankio.     Cornell  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  106. 


serve  very  well  if  the  plums  are  firm  and  in  good  condi- 
tion. Pack  firmly,  so  that  there  will  be  no  shifting  of  the 
fruit  during  its  transit  to  market,  because  the  bruising 
will  soon  cause  it  to  rot ;  moreover,  the  packages  present 


630 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


a  much  more  attractive  appearance  when  the  plums  are 
packed  firmly  and  neatly  in  the  baskets  or  crates.  The 
shipment  should  be  quick  and  prompt. 


POMEGKANATE.— ( Punka  Granatum.) 

This  plant  is  generally  grown  for  ornament,  although 
some  people  like  the  fruit.    There  are  five  varieties,  viz. : 


v*Jti&t 

^w%&& 

Fig.  275 — Pomegranate  (Acid). 

Acid,  Dwarf,  Turple,  Sweet  and  Violet.  The  plant  makes 
an  attractive  addition  to  the  lawn  or  yard  because  of  the 
beautiful  orange  red  flowers  and  the  large  yellow  apple- 
shaped  fruit.  The  fruit  has  such  a  large  quantity  of  seeds 
it  is  difficult  to  eat,  but  a  pleasant,  cooling  drink  is  made 
by  bruising  the  seeds  in  a  glass  of  water  and  sweetening 
with  sugar. 

The  plant  is  propagated  by  seeds,  cuttings  or  layers. 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AKD    CULTURE.  (531 

It  is  hardy  in  all  sections  of  the  Gulf  States  south  of  a 
line  drawn  through  Middle  Alabama. 

QUINCE. — (Cydonia  vulgaris.) 

The  Quince  is  a  small,  hardy  tree,  seldom  growing  over 
twelve  to  fifteen  feet  in  height;  thickly  branched;  with 
ovate  leaves,  whitish  underneath,  on  short  petioles;  the 
flowers  are  white  or  pale  pink  color,  and  the  fruit  appears 
on  shoots  of  the  same  year's  growth,  varying  in  shape, 
but  having  a  resemblance  to  that  of  the  apple  or  pear.  It 
is,  when  ripe,  highly  fragrant,  and  of  a  fine  golden  yellow 
color,  making  the  tree  quite  ornamental.  Quinces  are 
seldom  eaten  raw,  but  for  baking,  stewing,  preserving, 
marmalades,  or  pies,  along  with  apples,  they  are  much 
esteemed.  They  are  also  dried  for  winter  use,  giving  an 
excellent  flavor  to  dried  apples  and  peaches. 

For  these  purposes  the  quince  has  been  long  in  cultiva- 
tion, having  been  in  great  esteem  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  The  mucilage  from  the  seeds  was  formerly  used 
in  medicine  instead  of  gum-water.  The  quince  is  propa- 
gated from  seed,  layers,  slips  or  cuttings,  and  grows  very 
readily  from  the  latter.  Cuttings,  if  planted  about  the 
time  the  buds  commence  swelling  in  the  spring,  rarely 
fail  to  grow.  Quinces  usually  reproduce  themselves  from 
seed,  but  occasionally  vary.  Quince  stocks  are  very  much 
used  for  budding  the  pear  upon,  for  which  the  Angers 
quince  is  preferred,  although  we  have  found  the  common 
or  apple-shaped  equally  good  in  every  respect.  The 
quince  likes  a  deep,  moist  soil  and  cool  exposure,  growing 
naturally  upon  the  banks  of  streams.  It,  however,  grows 
to  admiration  in  any  good,  rich,  friable  soil,  and  no  tree  is 
more  benefited  by  manuring,  especially  with  vegetable 
manure.  Salt  is  said  to  act  beneficially  if  applied  during 
winter.     If  applied  occasionally  in  small  doses  at  a  dis- 


632  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

tance  from  the  trunk,  the  fruit  will  not  drop;  plant  the 
trees  ten  feet  apart. 

The  quince  i.s  subject  to  the  blight,  like  the  pear,  and  is 
also  attacked  by  the  borer  which  infests  the  apple;  the 
blighted  portion  must  be  cut  off  and  burned,  as  with  the 
pear.    The  borer  must  be  dug  out. 

The  best  fruit  is  obtained  from  those  trained  in  the 
form  of  a  tree,  but  on  account  of  the  borer  it  is  best  to  use 
the  bush  form  with  three  or  four  main  stems,  so  if  one 
is  destroyed  there  are  others  left  to  take  its  place.  Thus 
trained,  the  bush  should  be  moderately  pruned,  or  the 
fruit  will  be  inferior.  If  there  is  an  over-crop,  the  fruit 
should  be  thinned.  The  quince  begins  to  bear  when  three 
or  four  years  transplanted.  Varieties: 

Apple  on  Orange-Shaped. — This  is  the  common 
variety,  with  large,  roundish  fruit,  with  a  short  neck; 
skin  light  golden  yellow;  flesh  firm,  but  stews  tender; 
leaves  oval;  shoots  slender.  If  the  core  be  cut  out  and 
the  hole  filled  with  sugar  and  baked,  it  forms  a  fine 
dessert  dish. 

Peak-Shaped. — Fruit  large,  pyriform,  oblong,  taper- 
ing to  the  stalk;  skin  yellow;  flesh  of  firmer  texture  than 
when  preserved,  and  not  quite  as  good  in  flavor  and  color 
as  the  former.  Fruit  ripens  a  fortnight  later,  and  when 
picked,  keeps  much  longer;  leaves  oblong-ovate.  Tree 
of  more  vigorous  growth,  but  does  not  bear  so  well. 

Portugal. — Fruit  still  more  oblong,  of  lighter  color, 
milder  flavored,  and  of  better  quality  than  the  preceding 
kinds;  leaf  larger  and  broader;  shoots  stouter;  ripens 
between  the  other  two;  a  shy  bearer,  pretty  good  as  a 
stock  for  the  pear.    Tree  larger  than  the  other  varieties. 

ANGEPtS. — A  variety  of  the  last,  the  strongest  grower 
of  all  the  quinces,  and  much  used  for  pear  stocks.  The 
fruit  is  said  to  be  larger  and  better  than  any  other  kind. 


FBUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  633 

Chinese  Quince  (Cydonia  Sinensis). — Leaves  resemble 
those  of  the  common  quince  in  form,  but  have  a  glossy 
surface;  the  flowers  are  rose-colored,  with  a  delicate 
fragrance,  similar  to  that  of  the  violet.  The  fruit  is  very 
large,  oblong,  and  somewhat  ribbed  like  a  muskmelon; 
skin  golden  yellow;  flesh  hard  and  acrid,  but  is  said  to 
make  a  desirable  preserve.  A  very  beautiful  shrub  when 
in  fruit. 

THE  RASPBERRY.— (Rubus.) 

The  Raspberry  is  a  low,  deciduous  shrub,  of  which  sev- 
eral species  are  common  along  the  fences,  both  in  Europe 
and  America.  The  large-fruited  varieties  most  esteemed 
in  our  gardens  all  originated  from  the  long  cultivated 
Rubus  Idoeus,  or  Mount  Ida  Bramble,  which  appears  first 
to  have  been  introduced  into  the  gardens  of  the  south  of 
Europe  from  Mount  Ida.  It  is  now  quite  naturalized  in 
some  parts  of  the  country.  Besides  this  we  have  growing 
wild  the  common  black  aud  white  raspberry,  or  Thimble- 
berries  (Rubus  occidentalis),  and  the  red  raspberry  (Rubus 
strigosus),  with  very  good  fruit. 

Uses. — The  raspberry  is  held  in  general  estimation,  not 
only  as  one  of  the  most  refreshing  and  agreeable  fruits 
for  the  dessert,  but  it  is  employed  generally  for  pre- 
serving, jams,  ices,  sauces,  tarts  and  jellies;  and  on  a 
larger  scale  by  confectioners  for  making  syrups,  and  by 
distillers  for  making  brandy.  Raspberry  wine  is  made 
in  the  same  way  as  currant  wine,  and  is  considered  the 
most  fragrant  of  all  domestic  wines. 

Pro  pa  [jatum. — The  raspberry  is  propagated  by  suckers 
or  by  dividing  the  roots.  The  seeds  are  planted  only  when 
new  varieties  are  desired. 

Soil  and  Culture. — The  best  soil  is  a  rich,  deep  loam, 
rather  moist  than  dry,  provided  it  is  not  too  much  ex 
posed  to  our  hot  Southern  sun.     The  raspberry  succeeds 


634  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

best  at  the  South  when  planted  oil  the  north  side  of  a 
fence  or  building,  but  whore  it  can  have  the  morning  sun; 
planted  in  the  shade  of  trees  ii  never  does  well.  (Jive  a 
good  manuring  every  spring  with  well-rotted  stable 
manure,  and  keep  clear  from  grass  and  weeds  Avith  the 
hoe;  prune  out  the  old  dead  canes  every  spring.  A  fine 
late  crop  can  readily  be'obtained  by  cutting  over  the 
whole  stool,  in  the  spring,  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the 
ground.  They  will  then  shoot  up  fresh  wood,  which 
comes  into  bearing  in  August  or  September. 

Varieties. — The  finest  raspberries  iu  general  cultivation 
for  the  dessert  are  the  Red  and  White  Antwerp,  <  Juthbert, 
Fastolf,  Golden  Queen,  Orange,  French,  Franconia, 
Gregg,  Philadelphia,  Shaffer's  Colossal,  and  Turner. 

The  common  American  lied  is  most  esteemed  for 
flavoring  liquors,  or  making  brandy  and  cordials;  and  the 
American  Black  is  preferred  by  most  persons  for  cooking. 

The  ever-bearing  varieties  are  esteemed  for  prolonging 
the  season  of  this  fruit. 

Red  Antwerp  (A*.  Idoeus). — This  variety  is  also  known 
as  Old  Red  Antwerp,  Knevett's  Antwerp,  True  Red  Ant- 
werp, Ilowland's  lied  Antwerp,  Burley,  etc.  It  is  the 
common  lied  Antwerp  of  England  and  America,  and  is 
quite  distinct  from  the  North  River  variety,  which  is 
shorter  in  growth,  and  has  conical-shaped  fruit.  Canes 
strong  and  tall;  spines  light  red,  rather  numerous,  and 
pretty  strong;  fruit  large,  nearly  globular,  color  dark  red, 
with  large  grains,  and  covered  with  a  thick  bloom;  juicy, 
with  a  brisk  vinous  flavor. 

Fastolf  (R.  Idoeus). — One  of  the  most  vigorous  of  the 
foreign  varieties,  and  does  very  well  in  Georgia.  Fruit 
very  large,  roundish,  conical,  purplish-red;  tender,  rich, 
and  high -flavored.  Canes  strong,  erect,  branching,  with 
strong  spines.  The  foregoing  are  all  that  we  can  recom- 
mend for  Southern  cultivation  from  personal  experience. 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


635 


The  variety  cultivated  in  the  Northern  States  is  very 
large;  many  of  them  we  have  tested  here  with  but  poor 
sue  cess. 

Cuthbert  (R.  strigosus). — This  is  one  of  the  most  de- 
sirable raspberries  for  the  South.    The  fruit  is  red,  large, 


Fig  27G— Gregg  Raspberry  (after  Bailey).     Natural  size.     Cornell 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin. 

juicy  and  fine  flavored.     It  ripens  about  Hie  middle  or 
latter  part  of  May. 

Gregg  (/»'.  occidentalis). — Fruit  large  round-ovate,  black 
to  dark  purple.  Ripens  a  short  time  before  the  Cuthbert. 
This  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  black-cap  varieties.  A 
favorite  market  variety. 


G3G 


GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 


Golden  Queen  (/?.  strigosus). — An  excellent  summer 
variety;  fruit  is  large  and  round-conical,  yellow  color; 
prolific  and  good  flavor. 

Schaffer's  Colossal  (./?..  ncglectus). — This  is  one  of 
the  cap  varieties.  The  fruit  is  very  large,  round,  of  a  <  1 11 1 1 
purple,  with  an  acid  flavor,  ami  productive.  A  hardy 
plant  for  the  dry  summers  of  the  South.  Late  and  a  good 
shipping  fruit. 

Turner  (A*,  strigosus). — A  red  raspberry  and,  like  the 
last,  suitable  for  the  South',  because  it  withstands  the 


Fig.  277— Golden  Queen  Raspberry. 

hot  summers  admirably,  and  it  produces  fruit  of  excel- 
lent quality  and  beauty. 

Marketing.— The  fruit  must  be  packed  in  small 
baskets  holding  not  more  than  a  pint  because  in  greater 
bulk  the  berries  are  easily  crushed  and  ruined  by  their 
own  weight.  These  pint  boxes  are  then  placed  in  cases 
holding  twenty-four  pints,  with  ample  ventilation,  so 
that  the  fruit  will  keep  cool.  Ship  promptly  and  over  the 
shortest  routes,  since  the  raspberry  will  not  keep  long 
after  being  gathered. 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE. 


637 


STRAWBERRY.— (Fragaria.) 

The  botanical  name  of  the  Strawberry  is  derived  from 
the  delightful  fragrance  of  the  ripe  fruit.  Its  common 
name  has  arisen  from  the  ancient  practice  of  laying  straw 
between  the  plants,  to  keep  the  ground  moist  and  the 
fruit  clean.  This  fruit  is  fragrant,  delicious,  and  univer- 
sally esteemed.  The  first  offering  of  the  season,  in  the 
way  of  ripe  fruit,  nothing  that  conies  after  it  can  excel  "  a 
dish  of  ripe  strawberries  smothered  in  cream,"  or  fresh 
from  the  plant.  It  is,  indeed,  the  most  popular  and  whole- 
some of  all  the  small  fruits;  for,  besides  its  grateful 
flavor,  the  subacid  juice  has  a  cooling  quality  peculiarly 
acceptable  in  summer.  In  addition  to  its  excellence  for 
the  dessert,  it  is  a  favorite  fruit  for  making  jams,  ices, 
jellies,  and  preserves. 

The  English  wood  strawberry  was  the  first  brought 
into  cultivation.  Says  old  Tusser,  turning  over  its  culti- 
vation to  the  ladies,  as  beneath  his  attention: 

"  Wife,  unto  the  garden,  and  set  me  a  plot 
With  strawberry  plants,  the  best  to  be  got, 
Such  growing  abroad,  amid  trees  in  the  wood, 
Well  chosen  and  picked,  prove  excellent  good." 

Plants  taken  directly  from  the  field  into  the  garden 
yield  at  once  a  tolerable  crop.  This  climate  is  well 
adapted  to  the  culture  of  this  fruit,  since  by  giving  the 
plants  a  due  supply  of  moisture,  fruit  can  be  gathered 
the  greater  part  of  the  summer  and  autumn. 

In  its  natural  state,  the  strawberry  generally  produces 
perfect  or  hermaphrodite  flowers;  the  hermaphrodite  are 
those  which  have  both  the  stamens  and  pistils  so  well 
developed  as  to  produce  a  tolerably  fair  crop  of  fruit. 
Cultivation  has  so  affected  the  strawberry  in  this  respect, 
that  there  are  now  three  classes  of  varieties.  First,  those 
in  which  the  male  or  staminate  organs  are  always  per- 


Gob 


GARDENING     FOB    THE    SOUTH. 


feet;  but  the  female,  or  pistillate  organs,  are  so  defective 
that  they  will  very  rarely  bear  perfect  fruit.  Those  are 
called  staminate.  Second,  those  in  which  the  female,  or 
pistillate  organs,  are  perfect;  but  in  which  the  male 
organs  are  generally  so  defective  that  they  cannot  pro- 
duce fruit  at  all,  unless  in  the  neighborhood  of,  and  fer- 
tilized by,  staminate  or  hermaphrodite  plants.  Impreg- 
nated by  these,  they  bear  enormous  crops.  Third,  those 
which,  like  the  native  varieties,  are  true  hermaphrodites; 
that  is,  perfect  in  stamens  ami  more  or  less  perfect  in 
pistils,  so  that   they  generally  produce  a  tolerable  crop, 


Fig.  27S. 

Imperfect  or 

Pistillate. 


Fig.  279. 
Perfect  or  Bisexual. 


and,  in  favorable  seasons,  the  pistils  being  fully  de- 
veloped, they  will  produce  a  good  one. 

This  is  called  the  staminate  class  in  some  books.  The 
first  of  these  classes,  the  staminate,  rarely  producing 
fruit,  and  running  exuberantly  to  vine,  should  be  dug  up 
wherever  found,  since  the  hermaphrodite  are  productive, 
and  equally  useful  for  fertilizing.  It  is  to  the  pistillate 
varieties,  fertilized  by  the  hermaphrodite,  that  we  must 
look  for  large  crops  of  fruit. 

In  beds  of  each  of  these  varieties,  seedlings  will  spring- 
up,  differing  from  the  parents;  but  runners  from  any 
variety  will  always  produce  flowers  of  the  same  class  and 
similar  in  all  respects  to  the  parent  plant.  By  the  due 
admixture  of  hermaphrodite  and  pistillate  plants,  five 
thousand  quarts  have  been  picked  from  an  acre  at  Tin- 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  639 

cinnati,  where  the  strawberry  season  is  usually  less  than 
a  mouth. 

Potash,  soda  and  phosphoric  acid  are  the  elements 
most  likely  to  be  wanting  in  the  soil.  Wood  ashes  and 
the  carbonates  of  potash  and  soda  prove  very  beneficial 
applications. 

Propagation  and  Culture. — To  raise  the  strawberry  in 
perfection  requires  good  varieties,  a  proper  location,  care- 
ful cultivation,  vegetable  manure,  mulching  the  roots. 
aud  regular  watering. 

The  strawberry  bed  should  be  in  the  lowest  part  of  the 
garden,  succeeding  best  on  a  bottom  near  some  little 
stream  of  water,  where  the  soil  is  moist  and  cool;  no  trees 
or  plants  should  be  allowed  to  overshadow  it,  to  drink  up 
the  moisture  of  the  soil.  New  land  is  the  best,  aud  the 
most  easily  kept  free  from  weeds.  The  soil  should  be 
dug  or  plowed  deep. 

It  is  not  required  to  be  very  rich,  unless  with  decayed 
vegetable  matter,  as  animal  manures  produce  only  a 
growth  of  vine.  Plant  good,  vigorous  runners  from  old 
stocks,  three  feet  apart  each  way;  three  rows  of  pistil- 
la  tes,  and  then  one  row  of  good  hermaphrodites,  and  so 
on,  until  the  bed  or  plot  is  filled ;  cultivate  precisely  as 
jou  would  corn,  and  as  often.  As  the  runners  appear,  cut 
them  off,  and  keep  the  plants  in  hills;  this  is  a  much  bet- 
ter plan  than  to  permit  them  to  run  together  and  occupy 
the  entire  surface  of  the  ground;  after  the  beds  have  done 
fruiting,  still  keep  them  clear  from  grass  and  weeds,  and 
when  the  leaves  fall  from  the  trees  in  the  fall,  give  a  good 
coat  of  these  as  a  winter  protection. 

There  is  no  fruit  which  has  been  so  greatly  improved 
within  the  last  few  years  as  has  the  strawberry,  in  size, 
productiveness,  and  flavor;  it  is  now  as  generally  culti- 
vated as  the  apple  or  any  of  our  standard  vegetables. 
Most  of  the  then  esteemed  varieties  are  now  superseded 


640 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


by   new   and   improved   ones.    The   following  represent 
some  of  the  most  desirable  varieties  for  the  South: 

The  following  varieties  are  early  strawberries: 

Bubach  (No.  5),  Hoffman, 

Cloud,  Lady  Thompson, 

Crescent,  Meek, 

Greenville,  Michel  (very  early). 

The  following  varieties  are  medium  in  maturing; 

Bederwood,  Haverland, 

Captain  Jack,  Jessie, 

Cumberland,  Neunan, 

Downing,  Parker  Earle, 

Enhance,  Sharpless, 

Wilson. 

The  following  varieties  are  late  strawberries: 
Brandy  wine,  Gaudy,  Eureka, 

The  following  varieties  are  especially  desirable  for 
most  sections  of  the  South:  Bederwood,  Brandywine, 
Bubach  No.  5,  Crescent.  Cumberland,  Downing,  Enhance, 
Candy,  Greenville,  Haverland,  Hoffman,  Lady  Thomp- 
son, Michel  Early,  Neunan,  Parker  Earle,  Sharpless, 
"Wilson. 

The  following  arc  good  market  varieties,  and  will  ship 
well:  Bederwood,  Bubach  No.  5,  Cloud,  Crescent,  En- 
hance, Gandy,  Haverland,  Hoffman,  Lady  Thompson, 
Michel,  Neunan,  Parker  Earle,  Wilson. 

Bubach,  No.  5  (pistillate). — The  plants  are  vigorous  in 
some  seel  ions  and  weak  in  others.  Leaf  large,  runners 
few,  fruit  large,  irregular  in  shape,  inclined  to  conical, 
light  red ;  not  a  good  shipper. 


Plate  17 — Jessie  Strawberries. 


(641)  Plate  18-Bubach  No.  5  Strawberries. 

41         Photographs  by  B.  L.  Watts,  Tennessee  Experiment  Station. 


642 


GARDENING     FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Varieties. 


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successfully  grown.    **  Very  successful. 


Cloud  (pistillate). — A  vigorous  southern  plant  which 
resists  drought  well;  fruit  medium,  firm,  subacid  and 
ripens  evenly.     Fairly  good  shipper. 

(  Jrescent  (pistillate). — Vigorous  plant  with  dark  green 
foliage;  fruit  medium  size,  dull  red;  productive;  many 
runners;  stands  dry  weather  well.    A  good  shipper. 

Cumberland  (hermaphrodite). — Few  runners,  injured 
by  dry  weather;  leaf  surface  large  and  deep  green;  fruit- 
large,  excellent  in  flavor;  too  soft  for  shipment  to  distant 
points,  but  a  good  home  berry;  very  prolific. 


Plate  19— Gaudy  Strawberries. 


(613)  Plate  20-Haverland  Strawberries. 

Photographs  by  R  L.  Watts  Tennessee  Experiment  Station. 


644  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

Gandy  (hermaphrodite). — Some  planters  report  this 
plant  as  "  strong,  vigorous  with  plenty  of  runners," 
others  again  say  that  "  it  is  a  weak  grower,  setting  few 
runners."  Fruit  large  and  well  shaped;  ripens  evenly; 
quality  good  and  ships  well.    Popular  in  Mississippi. 

Haverland  (pistillate). — Highly  thought  of  in  many 
sections.  Leaves  with  long  steins  and  dark  green  in 
color;  vigorous  and  prolific.  Fruit  large  with  excellent 
flavor;  color  deep  red;  excellent  market  berry. 


Fig.  280— Sharpless  Strawberry. 

Hoffman  (hermaphrodite). — A  southern  type,  vigor- 
ous in  growth,  with  numerous  runners;  fruit  long, 
medium  sized  ;  dark  red  and  firm;  acid  taste.  Productive 
and  one  of  the  best  market  varieties. 

Michel's  Early  (hermaphrodite). — A  strong,  healthy 
plant,  with  large  leaves;  many  runners.  Fruit  medium 
size;  excellent  quality.  Withstands  heat  and  dry  weather 
well. 

Sharpless  (hermaphrodite). — A  good  home  berry,  but 
not  suitable  for  market  purposes.  Fruit  of  excellent 
quality,  and  very  large  and  irregular  in  shape;  dark  red 
in  color. 


FRUITS VARIETIES    AND    CULTURE.  645 

Wilson's  Albany  (hermaphrodite). — This  is  a  very 
popular  strawberry,  although  not  of  first  quality  iu 
flavor,  being  rather  too  acid,  but  as  it  is  a  very  hardy 
variety,  vigorous  grower,  and  very  productive,  it  will 
long  be  a  favorite  fruit  for  domestic  cultivation.  Fruit 
large,  very  dark  red,  conical  in  form,  trusses  short  and 
stout;  leaves  large,  dark  green,  with  short  petioles.  An 
enormous  bearer,  and  continues  for  a  long  time.  One  of 
the  most  desirable  varieties.     A  standard  sort. 

Marketing. — Pick  the  fruit  with  the  stem  attached, 
and  gather  it  early  in  the  morning,  while  the  dew  is  on 
the  plant;  the  fruit  will  stand  handling  much  better  in 
this  condition  than  it  will  after  the  sun  has  risen  and 
dried  off  the  dew,  causing  the  strawberry  to  soften. 
Transport  to  the  packing-house,  spread  out  to  dry.  Care- 
fully assort,  rejecting  all  fruit  except  the  large  and  well- 
formed  kinds.  Pack  in  baskets  firmly,  but  do  not  jam, 
and  handle  as  little  as  possible,  so  that  the  "  bloom"  will 
not  be  destroyed.  Select  a  reliable  commercial  house 
and  ship  the  fruit  direct  to  it;  and  endeavor  to  establish 
a  good  name  by  sending  only  the  best  fruit  in  the  best 
condition. 


646  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

USEFUL    TABLES    AND    FORMULAE. 

The  following  pages  contain  a  few  tables  and  formulae  which  the 
practical  gardener  will  find  useful  in  the  prosecution  of  his  profession. 
This  information  has  been  culled  from  standard  authorities,  and  can, 
therefore,  be  relied  upon  for  accuracy. 

Whitewash: 

The  following  receipt  for  making  whitewash  is  used  by  the  United 
States  Government  for  whitewashing  the  light-houses,  and  is  almost 
as  serviceable  as  paint.     It  gives  a  brilliant  surface: 

Slake  with  boiling  water  a  half  bushel  of  lime,  cover  during  the 
operation  to  keep  in  the  steam;  after  straining  add  a  peck  of  salt, 
which  has  been  dissolved  in  warm  water;  then  add  a  thin  paste  made 
from  three  pounds  of  ground  rice  stirred  in  while  hot;  then  add  a  half 
pound  of  Spanish  whiting  and  one  pound  of  glue  previously  dissolved 
in  water.  Add  five  gallons  of  hot  water  to  the  mixture,  stir  well,  and 
allow  to  stand  for  a  few  days  well  covered.  This  whitewash  must  be 
applied  hot. 

Absorptive  Power  of  Soils  (Henderson): 

100  pounds  of  pure  clay  absorbs 70  pounds  of  water. 

100  pounds  of  sand  absorbs 25  pounds  of  water. 

100  pounds  of  clay  loam  absorbs 50  pounds  of  water. 

100  pounds  of  chalk  absorbs 45  pounds  of  water. 

100  pounds  of  loamy  sand  absorbs 40  pounds  of  water. 

100  pounds  of  calcareous  sand  absorbs 25  pounds  of  water. 

Schubler's  Experiment  Shows  that — 

1,000  tons  of  pulverized  soil  will  absorb  moisture  when  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere,  as  follows: 

Sandy    clay    26  tons. 

Loamy  clay   : 30  tons. 

Stiff  clay  36  tons. 

Garden  mould  45  tons. 


USEFUL    TABLES    AXD'  FORMULAE. 


647 


Amount  of  Lund  in  Different  Fields: 

10  rods  x  16  rods 1  acre- 

5  rods  x  32  rods 1  acre- 

8  rods  x  20  rods 1  acre. 

4  rods  x  10  rods 1  acre. 

5  yards  x  968    yards 1  acre. 

10    yards  x  484    yards 1  acre. 

20    yards  x  242    yards 1  acre. 

40    yards  x  121    yards 1  acre. 

220  feet  x  198  feet 1  acre. 

110  feet  x  369  feet 1  acre. 

60  feet  x  726    feet 1  acre. 

120  feet  x  363  feet   ■ 1  acre. 

200    feet  x  108.9    feet I  acre. 

100    feet  x  145.2    feet i  acre. 

100   feet  x  108.9    feet I  acre. 

25  feet  x  100  feet «57  acre. 

25  feet  x  150  feet 109  acre. 

4356  square  feet 10     acre. 

Number  of  Trees  or  Plants  to  an  Acre  (Henderson): 

30x30 48  6x6 1210 

25  x  25 69  5x5 1742 

20x20 10S  5x4 2178 

19  x  19 120  5x3 2904 

18  x  18 134  5x2 4356 

17  x  17 150  5x1 8712 

16  x  16 170  4x4 2722 

15  x  15 193  4x3 3630 

14  x  14 222  4x2 5445 

13  x  13 257  4x1 10390 

12  x  12 302  3x3 4870 

11  x  11 360  3x2 7260 

10  x  10 435  3x1 14520 

9x    9 537  2x2 10890 

Sx    8 680  2x1 21780 

7x    7 888  lxl..'. 43560 


648 


GARDENING     FOR     THE    Sol  -111. 


Comjjosition  of  Vegetables  and  Fruits. 

(Department  of  Agriculture.) 


Water. 


Nitrogen. 

Free 
Extract. 


Vegetables: 

Asparagus 

Beans  (Lima) 

Beans  (String). . . 

Beets  (Red) 

Beets  (Sugar) 

Cabbage 

Carrot 

Collards  

Celery 

Corn  (Green) 

Corn  (Sweet) 

Cowpea 

Cauliflower 

Cucumbers 

Eggplant 

Kohl-rabi 

Lettuce 

Mushrooms 

Onions 

Parsnips 

Okra 

Pumpkins 

Radishes 

Potatoes  (Irish). . 
Potatoes  (Sweet). 
Peas  (Green). . 

Rhubarb 

Spinach 

Squashes  

Ruta-baga 

Tomatoes 

Turnips 


Fruits : 

Apples 

Apricots 

Bananas 

Blackberries 

Cherries 

Cranberries 

Grapes 

Muskmelons 

Lemons 

Oranges 

Pears 

Persimmons 

Pineapples 

Plums     

Pomegranates 

Raspberries 

Strawberries  

Watermelons 

Whortleberries. 

Nuts: 

Almonds 

Butternuts 

Chestnuts 

Cocoanuts (Flesh) 
Coeoanuts  (Milk) 

Filberts 

Hiokorynuts 

Peanuts 

Pecans 

Walnuts  (Black ) 


94.00 
68.46 
87.23 


87.10 
94.  r.O 
75.40 
81.25 
14.80 
90.80 
96.00 

92  93 
91.10 
95.90 
88.10 
87.60 
83  oo 
87.41 

93  lo 
91  NO 
98.00 
71    10 

94.40 
92.  10 
88. 10 
88  60 

91.26 
90  50 


84.11 

85  00 
66  25 

83  91 

86.10 

88  90 

77  40 

89  50 
89.30 

86  90 

84  40 
66  10 
89.28 

78  40 
76.80 
85.82 

90  80 
92   10 


9  20 
3  00 
2.50 


1.80 
7.15 

2  20 
1.50 
1.80 
2.10 
1.10 
4  50 
1.10 

3  10 
2  81 

20  75 
1  60 
0.80 
1  15 
2.00 
0.97 
3.50 
1.40 
1  60 
1.99 
0.90 
1  30 
2.20 
1.50 

1  06 
(i  60 

2  10 
0.90 
1  20 


1    10 

I  41 
0.94 
1.10 
0.40 
1.30 

II  Oil 

1.00 

0  80 

0  60 
0.80 
0.39 
1.00 

1  50 

0  99 

1  00 
0.40 
0.66 


6  20 

5  70 

0  40 
15.60 
15.40 
25.80 
11.00 
27.60 


ii  :so 
0.69 

o  io 

0.10 
0.40 
0.40 

0  60 
0.10 

1  10 
1.10 
1.44 
0.80 
0.20 
0  31 
0.10 
0  20 
0.40 
0  30 
0.50 
0  40 
0  10 
0.10 
ii  in 
0  40 
0.55 
0  70 
0  50 
ii  20 
0  20 
0.47 
0  20 


0.28 

135 
2.08 
0  84 

0  60 

1  60 

0.90 
0.20 
0.50 
0.70 
0.26 

1  60 


54.90 
61.20 

5.40 
50.60 

1  50 
65  30 
67  40 
38.60 
71  20 
56  30 


7.52 

8  00 
9.80 
5.80 
9.20 
6.30 
3.30 

19.70 
13  67 
55  72 
1  90 
1.80 
4.U 
5.50 

1  60 
6  80 

9  40 
13  50 

6  oi 
3.90 
5.80 

18  80 
22.70 
14.48 
3.60 

2  40 
9  10 

7  50 
5.84 
6  20 


11  26 
13  40 
28  88 

5  03 
11  14 

9.90 
19  20 

9  30 

7  20 
11  60 
14.10 
:il.50 

9  :si 
•Jo  10 
19.50 
12.60 

5.50 

6.70 
10.31 


17.30 
3.50 
42  10 
27.90 
4  60 
13.00 
11.40 
24.40 
13.30 
11.70 


USEFUL    TABLES    AATD    FORMULAE.  649 

Distances  Apart  for  Planting  Fruits  in  Commercial  Plantations  (Year  Book 
Department  of  Agriculture,   1897) : 

Apple 40  x  40 

33x33 
32x16 

Apple  (dwarf)    15  x  15 

10x10 

Pear 24  x  24 

20x20 
16x16 

Pear  (dwarf)    16  x  16 

12x12 

Quince   16  x  16 

12x12 

Apricots   30  x  30 

25  x  25 
20x20 

Cherries  (sweet)    30  x  30 

24x24 
20x20 

Cherries   (sour)    20  x  20 

16x16 

Peach   20  x  20 

20x16 
18x18 
13x13 

Plum    ; 20  x  20 

18x18 
16x16 

FiS  40  x  40 

20x20 

Kaki  20  x  20 

01ive 25  x  25 

20x20 

Orange  and  lemon 30x30 

25x25 
Grape  8  x  10 

.6x8 
Almond    24x24 

20x20 
Chestnut  40  x  40 

30x30 
20x20 

Pecan   50  x  50 

40  x  40 


650  GARDENING    FOE    THE    SOUTH. 

Walnut   50  x  50 

40x40 

Blackberries   6x    8 

6x    6 

Raspberries    fix    4 

Currants  and  gooseberries 6  x    8 

Strawberries    lx    4 

1  x    3 

lxl 

Cranberries    2x    2 

The  distance  suitable  for  fruit  trees  and  plants  in  commercial  plan- 
tations varies  considerably  in  different  regions.  The  more  important 
factors  in  determining  the  proper  distance  for  any  given  species  are 
the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  supply  of  soil  moisture,  the  habit  of  growth 
and  relative  vigor  of  the  varieties,  and  the  necessity  of  providing  suffi- 
cient space  for  operating  -spraying  machinery  in  combating  insects  and 
fungi.  Observation  of  local  practice  affords  the  safest  guide  in  doubt- 
ful cases. 


Time  When  Sect]  Should  Sprout. 

Days. 

Bean  5—10 

Beet    7—10 

Cabbage 5—10 

Carrot    12—18 

Cauliflower    5—10 

Celery    10—20 

Corn  5—8 

Cucumber 6 —  8 

Endive 6—10 


Days. 

Lettuce    5—10 

Onion   6 —  8 

Pea   7—10 

Parsnip   6—10 

Pepper 10—20 

Radish    9—14 

Salsify    3—6 

Tomato    7—12 

Turnip  6—12 


Injurious  Temperatures. 

(W   W.  Mammon  in  Weather  Bureau  Bulletin  23.) 

Table  of  temperatures  at  which  the  following  plants  are  liable  to  re- 
ceive injury  from  frost,  compiled  from  information  received  from  horti- 
culturists, orchardists,  and  gardeners  throughout  the  entire  Pacific 
coast 


The  temperatures  given  are, 
in  contact  with  the  plant  itself 


USEFUL   TABLES   AND   FORMULAE.  651 

nearly  as  possible,  those  of  the  air 


Plants  or  Fruits. 


I    %    * 

s       I       £       3 
■°         2         %         o 


Plants  or  Fruits. 


Almonds 

Appies 

Apricots 

Asparagus 
Bananas 

28 
27 

so 

29 
31 

30 
29 
31 
29 
31 
29 
31 

32 

30 
30 
32 
29 
32 

23 
20 
30 
20 
3L 

Beets 

Cabbage 

Cantaloupes 

"•62' 

25 
15-27 
30-31 
20  27 

28 

Cucumbers 

Cymlings     or 

squash 

Flowers* 

Grapes 

Grape  fruit 

31 

31 
31 
31 

30 
30 

'  31 

31 

31 

31 
31 
31 
31 
31 

31 

31 

31 
31 

30 
31 
31 

31 ' 

32 

30 

30 
28 
28 
28 

Lettuce     

Mandarins 

12-28 

28 

Okra 

31 

Olives 

30 

31 

Ml 

U18 
l  $24 

Onions 

Orangesf 

Parsnips.. 

Peaches  ... 

Pears  

Peas 

Plums 

Potatoes : 

Irish 

Sweet    

Prunes. 

Radishes 

Shrubs,  roses,  or 

trees 

Spinach 

Strawberries.     . 

Tangerines  

Tomatoes 

Turnips 

Watermelons 

Wheat    

Walnuts, English 


26-30 

'  '28 


Depends  on  variety,    f  Injured  at  2°  higher  if  continued  foui 
§Green. 

GARDEN  CALENDAR. 


t  Ripe. 


Upper  Sections. — Virginia,  North  Carolina,  North  Georgia,  North 
Alabama,  Tennessee. 

Middle  Sections. — Lower  South  Carolina,  South  Georgia,  Middle  and 
South  Alabama,  Mississippi. 

Southern  Sections. — Southern  Louisiana  and  Florida. 


January — Upper  Sections. — Prepare  hot-beds  and  cold  frames  and  sow 
seeds  of  Cauliflower,  Cabbage,  Beets,  Lettuce,  Onions,  Radishes. 
Prepare  land  for  Potatoes. 

Middle  Sections. — Land  made  ready  for  English  Peas  and  Irish 
Potatoes;  later  in  the  month  sow  Peas  in  open  ground,  also  Rad- 
ishes. 

Southern  Sections. — Sow  Carrots,  Beets,  Leeks,  Mustard,  early 
Radishes,  and  Turnips.  Sow  in  a  frame  Cabbage,  Broccoli,  Cauli- 
flower, Endive,  Kohl-rabi,  Lettuce.  Celery,  Parsley,  and  Cress. 
In   the   hot-bed   sow   Eggplants,    Pepper,    and    Tomatoes    for   early 


652  GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 

transplanting.  Sow  Cucumber  seeds  in  pots  for  forcing,  transplant 
into  hot-beds  after  the  appearance  of  the  third  leaf.  Plant  Peas 
of  the  marrow  fat  and  black-eyed  varieties.  Set  out  Cabbage  plants 
sown  in  November.  Onions  should  be  transplanted  early  in  this 
month,  so  that  the  bulbs  will  form  soon. 

February — Upper  Sections. — Sow  in  hot-beds  Cabbage,  Cauliflower, 
Beets,  Lettuce,  Onions,  Radishes,  Eggplants,  Pepper,  and  Toma- 
toes. Sow  in  open  ground  the  latter  part  of  the  month  Beets,  Car- 
rots, Celery,  Kale,  Parsley,  Radishes.  Set  out  Onion  sets,  Horse 
Radish,  hardy  Lettuce  plants. 

Middle  Sections. — The  early  planting  of  Potatoes  may  now  be  ac- 
complished. Sow  early  English  Peas.  The  seeds  mentioned  in 
January  for  the  Southern  sections  may  be  sown  at  this  time  for 
the  Middle  section. 

Southern  Sections. — Sow  Beets,  Carrots,  Cabbage,  Cauliflower, 
Leeks,  Lettuce,  Mustard,  Parsnips,  Kohl-rabi,  the  early  varieties  of 
Turnips  and  Radishes.  Transplant  Cabbage,  Cauliflower.  Divide 
Shallots  and  set  out.  Plant  all  varieties  of  Peas.  Sow  Aspa- 
ragus seeds  or  plant  the  roots.  Give  plenty  of  air  during  the  fair 
days  to  the  hot-beds  to  prevent  the  plants  from  becoming  too  ten- 
der before  transplanting.  Towards  the  close  of  the  month,  if  the 
weather  will  permit,  early  Corn  can  be  planted  and  bush  Beans. 
Melons  and  Squashes  will  do  well  if  planted  this  month  and  pro- 
tected by  some  covering  against  the  cool  nights. 

March — Upper  Sections. — All  kinds  of  hardy  seeds  may  now  be  placed 
in  the  ground,  such  as  Cauliflower,  early  Cabbage,  Celery,  Aspara- 
gus, Carrots,  Leeks,  Lettuce,  Parsley,  Parsnips,  Onions,  Peas, 
and  Salsify.  Sow  under  glass  Eggplants,  Pepper,  and  Tomatoes. 
Plant  Irish  Potatoes,  Onion  sets,  Asparagus  roots,  and  set  out 
Cauliflower,  Cabbage,  and  Lettuce  plants  from  the  hot-beds,  after 
hardening.  Prepare  the  land  for  early  planting  of  Melons  and 
Squashes. 

Middle  Sections. — All  kinds  of  hardy  seeds  may  be  sown.  Cauli- 
flower and  Cabbage  plants  should  be  transplanted.  Shallots  divided 
and  set  out.  Sow  Celery  for  seasoning,  and  also  Parsley  and  Cress, 
Kohl-rabi  and  Turnips.  Plant  all  varieties  of  Peas,  and  sow 
Asparagus  or  plant  the  roots,  if  not  placed  in  the  ground  previously. 
As  soon  as  the  weather  is  favorable  plant  bush  Beans,  Cucumbers, 
Squash,  and  Melons,  but  protect  the  tender  plants  as  they  come  up 
by  the  use  of  bell  glasses  or  small  boxes  covered  with  glass.  Near 
the  close  of  the  month  plant  Sweet  or  Sugar  Corn,  and  also  early 
Corn  for  the  market. 

Southern  Sections. — This  is  the  month  for  sowing  bush  and  pole 
Beans,  and,  towards  the  end  of  the  month,  plant  Lima  Beans; 
plant,  also,  Cucumbers,  Leeks,  Mustard,  Lettuce,  Celery  for  cutting. 


USEFUL   TABLES    AM)    FORMULAE. 


653 


Parsley,  Melons,  Okra.  Early  varieties  of  Peas  may  be  still  planted. 
Set  out,  the  last  of  the  month.  Tomatoes,  Eggplants,  and  Peppers; 
plant  Sweet  Corn  for  continued  crop. 

April — Upper  Sections. — Sow  in  the  open  ground  Cabbage,  Tomatoes, 
and  Lettuce,  and  plant  early  Irish  Potatoes.  Sow  the  seeds  of 
Beets,  Carrots,  Asparagus,  Artichokes,  Celery.  Onions.  Parsnips, 
Radishes,  Parsley,  Salsify,  Spring  Kale.  Set  out  Cabbage  plants, 
Asparagus  roots,  and  Onion  sets.  Plant  early  Corn,  bed  Sweet 
Potatoes,  plant  Peas,  Snap  Beans,  and,  towards  the  end  of  the 
month,  Cantaloupes,  Cucumbers,  Melons,  Squashes,  and  Strawberry 
plants. 

Middle  Sections. — Plant  all  varieties  of  bush  and  pole  Beans,  and, 
later  in  the  month,  Lima  Beans  also.  Plant  Cucumbers,  Squashes, 
Okra,  Early  Peas;  sow  Lettuce,  Celery  for  cutting,  Radishes, 
Mustard,  Carrots,  Parsley;  set  out  Eggplants,  Tomatoes,  and  Pep- 
pers in  the  open  ground. 

Southern  Sections. — Sow  all  kinds  of  Beans,  Carrots,  Cucumbers, 
Corn,  Celery  for  cutting,  Endive,  Lettuce,  Mustards,  Melons,  Pars- 
ley, Radishes,  Squashes.  Cauliflower  may  be  sown  this  month,  as 
it  takes  some  time  to  mature,  especially  the  Italian  varieties. 

May — Upper  Sections. — Most  garden  seeds  can  be  sown  this  month, 
such  as  Carrots,  pole  and  snap  Beans,  Lima  Beans,  Corn,  Cucum- 
bers, Cantaloupes,  late  Cabbage  seeds  for  setting  out  for  fall  use, 
Tomatoes,  Salsify,  Peas,  Okra,  Squashes,  Pumpkins,  Sweet  Potato, 
and  Eggplants. 

.  Middle  Sections. — Such  kinds  of  garden  seeds  as  Melons,  Okra, 
Lima  Beans,  and  Corn  may  be  safely  planted  during  this  month. 
Set  out  Sweet  Potatoes. 

Southern  Sections. — With  the  exception  of  Okra,  the  white  and 
yellow  summer  Radishes  and  Endive,  very  few  vegetable  seeds 
are  sown  during  this  month.  If  the  large  white  Celery  is  sown 
at  this  time  it  will  be  necessary  to  shade  and  water  during  the 
dry,  warm  weather.  Special  care  in  cultivation  must  be  taken  of 
the  growing  crops.  Melons,  Cucumbers,  Squashes  may  be  planted 
when  the  Onions  and  Potatoes  are  taken  up. 

June — Upper  Sections. — Cabbage,  Eggplants,  Peppers,  Potatoes,  and 
Tomato  plants  may  be  set  out  during  this  month.  Sow  late  Cab- 
bage and  Cauliflower  for  winter  use  Plant  late  Potatoes  for  the 
winter.  Plant  Cantaloupes,  Watermelons,  Cucumbers,  Squashes, 
Pumpkins,  Sweet  Corn,  and  Snap  Beans. 

Middle  Sections. — Plant  pole  and  snap  Beans,  Sweet  Corn,  Cucum- 
bers for  pickling,  Cabbage  for  fall  crop;  Celery  seed  also  sown  now. 

Southern  Sections. — The  growing  crops  will  require  all  the  atten- 
tion of  the  gardener,  and  very  few  seeds  will  be  sown  during  the 


6 54:  GARDENING    FOB    HIE    SOUTH. 

month.  Corn  may  be  planted  for  the  late  supply  of  roasting  ears; 
some  varieties  of  the  hardy,  prolific  Beans  and  summer  Radishes 
may  be  sown  at  this  time;  towards  the  end  of  the  month  Tomato 
seeds  may  be  put  in  for  the  late  crop.     Plant  Sweet  Potato  Vines. 

Jn.v — Upper  Sections. — Snap  Beans  and  Sugar  Corn  may  be  planted 
for  succession  crops.  Set  out  late  Cabbage  plants  for  winter  use; 
also  Celery  plants.  Sow  Ruta  Baga;  plant  Cucumbers  for  pickling 
and  table  use,  and  late  Potatoes  for  winter. 

Middle  Sections. — Plant  Ruta  Bagas,  Turnips,  Endive,  Cauli- 
flower, Cabbage,  Celery  for  early  crop.  Give  the  vegetables  care- 
ful attention  in  cultivation  to  destroy  all  weeds  and  keep  the 
ground  in  a  loose,  open  condition  for  the  proper  absorption  of 
moisture  from  the  atmosphere  and  the  rapid  development  of  the 
plants. 

Southern  Sections. — Sow  late  Tomatoes  and  plant  Corn  for  a  late 
crop.  Towards  the  end  of  the  month  bush  Beans  may  be  planted. 
In  the  middle  of  the  month  sow  Cabbage  seeds  for  winter  use. 
Still  plant  Sweet  Potato  Vines. 

August — Upper  Sections. — Continue  planting  Snap  Beans  for  table  use. 
If  Cabbage  and  Celery  plants  have  not  been  planted,  set  these  out 
early  in  the  month  and  water  the  Celery  regularly,  as  this  is  a 
dry  month.  Lettuce  for  fall  heading  may  be  planted  now.  All 
kinds  of  Turnip  seeds  may  be  sown. 

Middle  Sections. — Set  out  fall  Cabbage;  sow  Kale,  Ruta  Baga,  and 
Turnip  seeds;  English  Peas  and  Snap  Beans  for  fall  use  may  be 
sown  during  this  month;  the  main  crop  of  Celery  must  be  set  out 
at  this  time.  Lettuce  sown  under  glass  for  winter  use  will  be  a 
valuable   crop. 

Southern  Sections. — Bush  Beans,  Peas,  and  late  Cabb  ge  will  be 
planted  during  this  month;  also,  Kale  and  Brussels  Sprouts. 
During  the  first  of  the  month  sow  Cauliflower  seeds.  Sow  White 
Strasburg  Radish  and  Yellow  Turnips,  and  near  the  end  of  the 
month  the  red  varieties  of  Turnips  may  be  sown.  This  is  the  time 
for  sowing  Celery,  and  some  Celery  plants  may  be  set  out  at  this 
time  if  they  are  watered  and  shaded.  Set  out  Tomato  and  Shallot 
plants  for  late  crops  Kohl-rabi  and  Ruta  Baga  seeds  may  be 
sown. 

September — Upper  Sections. — Sow  Onion  seed.  Put  out  Onion  sets.  Sow 
winter  Radish,  Kale,  Spinach,  Turnips. 

Middle  Sections. — Sow  Kale  for  winter  use;  sow  Spinach  in  drills; 
plant  Onion  sets;  sow  broadcast  Turnip  seeds  for  salad,  and  sow 
Radishes  for  late  crop. 

Southern  Sections. — Most  of  the  seeds  mentioned  for  August  can 
also   be   sown   during   this   month,    in   addition   to   Parsley,    Beets, 


USEFUL   TABLES   AXD   FORMULAE.  655 

Carrots,  early  varieties  of  Peas,  Lettuce,  and  Corn  Salad.  Trans- 
plant Celery  in  the  ditches  prepared  for  it,  and  set  out  Cabbage 
and  Cauliflower  plants.  Begin  sowing  Creole  Onions  after  the 
middle  of  the  month. 

October — Upper  Sections. — Sow  Kale,  Mustard,  Turnips  for  salad, 
Spinach,  and  Lettuce.     Put  out  Onion  sets. 

Middle  Sections. — Sow  Kale  and  winter  Spinach.  Transplant 
Celery  to  the  trenches  prepared  for  it;  plant  Onion  sets  and  Shal- 
lots. Plant  all  kinds  of  Radishes,  Carrots,  Salsify,  Beets,  Parsley, 
Endive,  Kohl-rabi;  Corn  Salad  and  Turnips  may  be  sown  this 
month.     Sow  Cabbage  and  Cauliflower  in  frames. 

Southern  Sections. — Towards  the  end  of  the  month  the  Marrow 
Fat  and  Black-Eyed  Peas  and  English  Windsor  Beans  may  be 
planted.  Sow  Cabbage,  Cauliflower,  Brussels  Sprouts,  Carrots, 
Beets,  Parsley,  Parsnips,  Radishes,  Spinach,  and  Lettuce.  Near 
the  end  of  the  month  begin  earthing  up  the  Celery  plants  and 
water   frequently. 

November — Upper  Sections. — Sow  Lettuce  and  early  varieties  of  Cab- 
bage seeds  in  cold  frames,  leaving  off  the  glass  to  harden  the 
plants. 

Middle  Sections. — The  first  of  the  month  sow  Carrots  and  protect 
with  litter.    Sow  Cabbage  and  Cauliflower  in  frames. 

Southern  Sect  inns. — Sow  all  varieties  of  winter  vegetables.  For 
spring  heading  sow  late  flat  Dutch  and  Drumhead  Cabbage;  late 
varieties  of  Peas  will  also  do  well  this  month.  Prepare  hot-beds 
for  Cucumber  seeds. 

December — Upper  Sections. — Hot-beds  and  green-houses  must  be  used 
for  vegetable  seeds  during  this  month.  Very  little  can  be  done  in 
the  open   ground. 

Middle  Sections. — The  same  is  true  with  this  portion  of  the 
South.  December  is  generally  a  severe  month  for  tender  plants, 
and  the  hot-beds  and  green-houses  must  be  depended  upon  for  all 
character   of   sowing. 

Southern  Sections. — Carrots,  early  Cabbage,  Endive,  Lettuce,  and 
Radishes  may  be  sown  during  this  month  in  the  far  Southern  sec- 
tions. Early  Erfurt  Cauliflower  may  be  sown,  and  the  Marrow 
Fat  and  late  varieties  of  Peas.  Prepare  the  ground  for  planting 
fruit  trees.     Prune  fruit  trees. 


656 


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USEFUL   TABLES   AND   FORMULAE.  659 

Weights  and  Measures. 
Troy  Weight— 

24  grains 1  pennyweight. 

20  pennyweights 1  ounce. 

12  ounces 1  pound. 

Apothecaries'  Weight — 

20  grains 1  scruple. 

3  scruples 1  drachm. 

8  drachms 1  ounce. 

12  ounces 1  pound. 

Avoirdupois  Weight — 

27.34  grains 1  drachm. 

16  drachms 1  ounce. 

16  ounces 1  pound. 

Long  Measure — 

12     inches 1  foot. 

3     feet 1  yard. 

5|  yards 1  rod,  pole  or  perch. 

40     rods 1  furlong. 

8     furlongs 1  statute  or  land  mile. 

3  miles 1  league. 

Square  or   Land   Measure — 

144  square  inches 1  square   foot. 

9  square  feet 1  square  yard. 

30J  square  yards 1  square  rod. 

40  square  rods 1  rood. 

4  roods 1  acre. 

640  acres 1  square  mile. 

Liquid  Measure — 

4  gills 1  pint — 28.875  cubic  inches. 

2  pints 1  quart — 57.75  cubic  inches. 

4  quarts 1  gallon— 231  cubic  inches. 

63  gallons 1  hogshead. 

2  hogsheads 1  pipe  or  butt. 

2  pipes 1  tun. 

Dry  Measure — 

2  pints 1  quart. 

4  quarts 1  gallon. 

2  gallons 1  peck. 

4  pecks 1  struck  bushel. 


660 


GARDENING     FOB    THE    SOUTH. 


The  Metric  System  of  Weights  and  Measures. 
Metric  Units  in  English  Equivalents: 


Inches. 

Feet. 

Yards.     Miles. 

Centimeter    . . 

.  .  .  .     0.393685 
. .  .  .     3.93685 

0.032807 
0.328071 

Decimeter    . . . 

0.109357  

Meter    

39.3685 

3  280711 

1  09363 

Decameter   . . . 

....393.685 

32.8071 

10.9357      

Hectometer   . . 

328.071 

109.357       0.0621347 

Kilometer    . . . 

3280.71 

1093.57         0.6213466 

Myriameter    .. 

32807.1 

10935.7           6.213466 

Are— 154988  sq.  in..  1076.4  sq.  ft.,  119.60  sq.  yds.,  0.0247  acres. 
Hectare— 107.64   sq.   ft.,  11.960  sq.   yds.,   2.471   acres. 
Liter— 33.8  fluid  ounces,  1.0567  liquid  quarts,  0.02838  bushels. 
Gram — 15.43234  grains,   0.03527   ounces   avoid.,   0.0022   lbs.   avoid. 
Kilogram — 2.2  lbs.  avoid. 

Foot— 0.3048  meters,  3.048  decimeters,  30.48  centimeters. 

Mile— 1609.344   meters,   1609   kilometers. 

Acre— 40.4685  ares,  0.4046  hectare. 

Gallon— 3.7854   liters. 

Pound — 0.4535    kilogram,    4.535    hectograms. 

Ton   (2,000  lbs.)— 907.1  kilograms,  0.9071  tonne. 

Bushel— 35.237  liters. 


A  cubic  foot  is  equal  to — 
1728    cubic    inches. 

0.8036  struck  bushels  of  2150.42  cubic  inches. 

3.2143   pecks. 

7.4805  liquid  gallons  of  231  cubic  inches. 

6.4285   dry   gallons. 
29.922   liquid   quarts. 
25.714  dry  quarts. 
59.844    liquid    pints. 
51.428  dry  pints. 

0.2667   barrel   of  three   struck  bushels. 

0.2375  liquid  barrel  of  31*  gallons. 


662 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Legal    Weight  of  a 


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a 

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48 
24 
46 
60 
60 
32 

24 
46 
60 

24 
46 
60 

25 
46 

21 

60 
60 

25 
46 
60 
60 

24 
46 
60 

24 
45 
60 

64 

28 
46 
62 

60 

60 
60 

55 

40 

46 
33 

33 

33 
40 

10 
40 
57 

57 

57 

57 

50 

57 

57 

IS 

57 

57 

52 

57 

52 

28 
55 

28 

28 

45 

p'  " ,  Ji 

48 
33 
33 

Dried 

33 

33 

33 
40 

33 

33 

89 

40 

Peas* 

60 

46 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 
24 

60 

60 

Potatoes,  Irish 

60 
60 

60 
50 

60 

60 

56 

60 

60 
55 

70 

60 
55 

60 
46 

60 
55 

60 
55 

60 

60 
56 

60 

48 
32 

60 

32 

55 

Turnips 

55 

;,,, 

55 

55 

55 

60 

60 

56 

USEFUL    TABLES    AXD    FORMULAE. 


663 


Bushel  in  Each  State.  * 


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60 
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■M 

24 

46 

60 

■Jl 
46 
60 

25 

22 
46 
62 
60 

22 

46 
60 
60 

24 
46 
60 

26 
46 
60 

26 

28 

46 

28 

25 

24 

46 

46 

60 

fin 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

50 

40 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

54 

56 

57 

57 
25 

57 

57 

56 

57 

5.0 

57 

56 

57 

54 

£6 

50 

57 

38 

28 

33 

28 

25 

28 
II 

98 

28 

33 
33 

33 

33 

32 
28 

33 
36 

28 

28 

33 

28 

33 

33 

28 
28 

60 

98 

45 

60' 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

50 

60 

28 

60 
56 

60 

60 

60 
50 

60 

60 

60 

54 

60 
55 

60 
50 

60 

56 
55 

60 

60 
50 

60 
50 

60 
55 

60 
55 

60 
56 

60 

60 
54 

60 

56 

58  55 

55 

55 

55 

56 

55 

50 

55 

56 

60 

42   56 

*Local  usage  sometimes  varies  from  legal  enactment.  All  States  recognize  the  use  of  the 
standard  United  States  bushel,  without  reference  to  weights  of  articles  measured,  and  some 
States  no  longer  legalize  any  other. 


664 


GARDENING    FOR    THE    SOUTH. 


Every  intelligent  gardener  should  have  some,  if  not  all,  of  the  fol- 
lowing books  on  the  shelves  of  his  library  to  guide  him  in  the  proper 
cultivation  of  his  garden: 

Asparagus  Culture,  by  Barnes  and  Robinson. 
American  Fruit  Culturist,  by   Thomas. 
Annals  of  Horticulture,   by   Bailey. 
American  Pomological   Society,  Proceedings  of. 
Apple  Culture,  Notes  on,  by  Bailey. 

Bulletins  of  the  States'  Experiment  Stations.  (The  name  of  each 
gardener  should  be  on  the  mailing  lists  of  these  stations  and 
the  bulletins  should  be  carefully  read  and  filed  for  reference.) 

Bulletins  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Many 
valuable  bulletins  and  circulars  are  issued  each  year  by  this 
department. 

Cauliflowers,   by  Brill. 

Celery  for  Profit,  by  Grenier. 

Cabbages  and  Cauliflower,  How  to  Grow,  by  Gregory. 

Draining  for  Profit  and  Health,  by  Waring. 
Drainage,  Farm,  by  French. 
Dictionary  of  Gardening,  by  Nicholson. 
Drainage,   Tile,  by   Chamberlain. 
Drainage,  by  Miles. 

Farm,  Gardening  and  Seed  Growing,  by  Thurber. 

First  Principles  of  Agriculture,  by  Voorhees. 

Fruit   Garden,   by   Barry. 

Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America,  by  Downing. 

Fertility  of  the  Land,  by  Roberts. 

Fruit  Growing  Principles,  by  Bailey. 

Gardening  for  Profit,  by  Henderson. 

Gardening  and  Farm  Notes,  Market,  by  Landreth. 

Grape  Growers'  Guide,   by   Chorlton. 

Grape  Training,   by  Bailey. 

Garden  Making,  by  Bailey. 

Greenhouse  Construction,   by   Taft. 

Grape  Culturist,  by  Fuller. 

How  Crops  Feed,  by  Johnson. 
How  Crops  Grow,  by  Johnson. 
Handbook  of  Plants,  by  Henderson. 
Horticulturists'   Rule   Book,   by   Bailey. 


USEFUL    TABLES    AAD    FORMULAE.  665 

Injurious  Insects  of  Farm  and  Garden,  by  Treat. 
Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetation,  by  Harris. 
Insects.  Manual  for  Study  of,  by  Comstock. 
Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits,  by  Saunders. 
Insects  and  Insecticides,   by  Weed. 

Landscape  Gardening,  by  Elliott. 

Manures,  Talk  on,  by  Harris. 
Manures,  A  Treatise  on,   by  Griffith. 
Mushrooms,   How  to  Grow,   by  Falconer. 

Nursery  Book,  by  Bailey. 
Nut  Culturist,  by  Fuller. 

Olive,  The,  by  Marvin. 

Onion  Culture,  The  New,  or  Onions  for  Profit,  by  Grenier. 

Ornamental  Gardening,  by  Long. 

Onion  Raising,  by  Gregory. 

Pear  Culture  for  Profit,  by  Quinn. 
Potato  Culture,   Sweet,  by  Fitz. 
Peach  Culture,   by   Fulton. 
Propagation  of  Plants,   by  Fuller. 
Potato  Culture,   The  New,   by  Carman. 
Potato  Culture,  by  Terry. 

Success   in   Market   Gardening,   by   Rawson. 
Spraying  of  Plants,  by  Lodeman. 
Soil,  by  King. 

Truck  Farming  in  the  South,  by  Oemler. 


INDEX 


PAGE. 

Achras  sapota   531 

Agaricus  camprcxtris   ....362,  363 

Allium   ascolonicum    422 

c<l»t   379 

fistilosum     381 

porrum   348 

sativum    342 

Schcenoprasum   322 

Almond 147,  456,  648,  649 

common     456 

cultivation    456 

pistache   457 

princess   457 

sultana    457 

Alternaria  solani 166 

Amanita  muscaria  366,  367 

phylloides    365,  366 

Ammonium  sulphate   71 

Amygdalus  communis   456 

Ananassa  sativa   611 

Anasa  tristis  141,  142 

AnetJium  graveolens  448 

Angelica    444 

Anise    444 

Anisopteryx  pometaria  ...126,  127 

A  nthensis   nobilis    447 

Anthracnose  155,  156 

Aphis  brassicos    122 

gossypii    133 

.4  nona  cherimolia   531 

muricata    531 

reticulata     531 

squamosa    531 

Allium  graveolens  310 

var.    na.pa.eeum    321 

Appelius.  M 192 

Apple.  .117,  118,  120,  127,  144, 

457,  648,  649 

Albemarle  pippin    479 

Arkansas     458 

Baldwin     459 

Bachelor    459 

Ben  Davis   459,  460 

Black  twig  458 

Bough   459,  460 

Buckingham 459,  461 

Buff    461,  462 


PAGE. 

Buncombe    471 

Byers    459 

Camak's  sweet 461,  462 

Carnation    463 

Carolina  aromatic  463 

Crab    457 

Cullasaga    463 

Disharoon  465 

Early  harvest    464,  465 

Early  red   473 

Fall   pippin    465 

Hall     465,  467 

Hockett's  sweet   467 

Homony    477 

Horse   465,  466,  467 

Johnson's  fine  winter...   479 

Jonathan    467,  469 

Julian    466,  467 

Limbertwig 468,  469 

Maiden's  blush    468,  469 

Mangum 469,  471 

Margaret    470,  473 

Meigs     470,  471 

Mountain  belle   471 

Nickajack    471,  473 

Oconee    greening 472,473 

Red    astrachan    473,475 

Red   fall  pippin 471 

Red   June    472,  473 

Red  winter  Pearmain...  471 

Romanite     474,  475 

Rome  beauty   474,  475 

Shockley    475,  477 

Smokehouse   478 

Sops  of  wine 476,  477 

Stevenson   477 

Striped  June   473 

Summer   queen    476,  477 

Taunton    478 

Waddel's  hall   477 

Watson    478 

Winesap    479 

White  Juneating   478 

Yellow   June    478 

Yellow  New  York  pippin  479 

Yopp   479 

York  Imperial 479 


(667) 


668 


PAGE. 

Apples  adapted  to — 

Alabama   481 

Arkansas    481 

Florida    482 

Georgia    481 

Kentucky    481 

Mississippi    481 

North   Carolina    481 

South  Carolina  481 

Tennessee  481 

Texas   481 

Virginia    480 

Gathering  the  fruit 482 

Marketing     482 

Apricot...  147,  483,  535,  648,  649 

Bungo    485 

Breda  485 

Dubois   484 

Early    golden    484 

Hemskirke   485 

Hubbard    485 

Large  early   484 

Moorpark    485 

Musch  485 

Orange   484 

Peach   484 

Royal    485 

Santa   Fe    485 

Artichoke    188,  261 

Cultivation    262,  265 

Jerusalem    265 

Arachis  hypogcea  343 

Archangelica  officinalis  444 

Artemisia  abrotanum  454 

absinthium    455 

dracunculus    431 

pontica   455 

Artotrogus  debaryanvs   158 

Ashes    48,  57 

Asparagus   82,  188,  266,  648 

Columbian  mammoth    . .   270 

Conover's   colossal    270 

Cultivation 267 

Palmetto 270 

Marketing  271 

Asparagus  officinalis    266 

Aspidiotus  pemiciosus 144 

A spidi i, lax  camellia'   145 

Juglans-regiw 145 

Atkinson,  G.  F 26,  167,  361 

A  triplex  hortensis  385 

Avocado  pear   531 

Azotin    71 

Bacillus   amylovorus    154 

Bailey,  L.  H 26,  508,  533,  621 


PAGE. 

Balm    188,  445 

Banana 486,  487,  648 

Baracoa  487 

Cavendish   487 

Dwarf  487 

Chinese    487 

Golden   487 

Hart's  choice 487 

Horse   487 

Martinique    487 

Orinoco    487 

Marketing 488 

Barbarca   vulgaris   329 

Basil    188,  272 

Cultivation  of 273 

Baskets    102 

Beans.  120,  134,  188,  274,  648,  650 

Algiers   276 

Black  speckled   277 

Black-eyed  wax  279 

Bunch    274 

Bush   274 

Burpee's  bush  279 

Broad  Windsor    275 

Carolina  274,  279 

Culture   275,  280 

Dark  prolific   277 

Dutch  case  knife 27B 

Dwarf 276 

Extra  early  refugee 279 

Early  Mohawk  276 

Early  Valentine  276 

English   broad    274 

French  kidney   276 

Henderson's  bush    279 

London  horticultural 277 

Newington  wonder   276 

Royal   kidney    276 

Long  pod    275 

Lima    274,  279 

Mazagan    274 

Pole 271 

Sieva    274 

Snaps   274 

Types    of    277 

Wardwell's  kidney  wax.  279 

Wax    276 

White  prolific  ...  277 

Marketing    283 

Beets.. 82,  118,  188,  284,  648,  650 

Bassano  284 

Culture    286 

Early  eclipse  284 

Early  long  blood  284 

Extra  early  Egyptian...  284 
Extra    early   turnip 284 


669 


PAGE. 

Klein  Wanzleben 285 

Lentz    285 

Long   blood    284 

Mangel -Wurzel 285 

Sugar    285 

White   288 

Marketing  290 

Bene   446 

Berckmans,  P.   J 26,  34,  545 

Beta  vulgaris   284 

cida   284 

Bibliography    664 

Birds    Ill 

Blackberry   488,  648,  649 

Dallas  490 

Early   harvest   489 

Kittatinny    489 

Wilson's  early 489 

Marketing 490 

Blood,  dried  71 

Bones   75 

Boneash 76 

Boneblack 76 

Bonemeal 76 

Boneset    446 

Borage    188,  446 

Bora (/o  officinalis 446 

Bordeaux  mixture   184 

Borecole    290 

Culture    291 

Dwarf        green        curled 

Scotch 291 

Early  curled  Siberian 291 

Marketing  291 

Brassica  alba  375 

Brassica  napvs  var  oleifera. . .  413 

var  esculenta 413 

nigra  375 

oleraeea — 

var  bullata-major 296 

var  botritis  cauliflora. 292,  306 

var  capitata   293 

var  caulo  rapa 348 

var  fimbriate!   290 

var  (/em  in  if  era   292 

rapa 436 

Broccoli    188,  292 

Marketing  292 

Bruchus  pisorum 150,  151 

obtectus 151 

quadri  maculatus 151,  152 

Brussels  sprouts 292 

Bryson,  Miss  Ann 465 

Budding  211 

Bulbs    197 

Bullace    503 


page. 
Burnet   188 

Bushel,       legal      weight      of 
(Table)    663 

Cabbage. 28,  82,  121,  122,  132, 

1S8,  293,  648,  650 

All  seasons 296 

Curled  savoy  296 

Culture    297 

Drumhead  savoy   296 

Early  drumhead 296 

Early  flat   Dutch 295 

Early  Jersey  Wakefield.  294 

Early  Winningstadt 295 

Early   York    296 

Express    296 

Flat   Dutch    296 

Henderson's    early    sum- 
mer    295 

Improved  Brunswick   . . .  296 

Large  late  drumhead 296 

Preserving    302 

Premium  flat  Dutch 296 

Red  Dutch   296 

Savoy   296 

Succession    296 

Marketing 303 

Cwoma  nitens 155 

Calocasia   esculenta    430 

Camak,  James 21,  24 

Camomile    188 

Cantaloupe 358 

Acme    357 

Atlantic  City  358 

Baltimore    358 

Culture 359 

Emerald  green   358 

Gold  Jenny 358 

Jenny  Lind    358 

Pineapple    358 

Shippers'  delight   359 

Marketing 361 

Capsicum 188,  394 

Caraway  188,  447 

Carbonbisulphide  184 

Carica  papaya  531 

Carpocapsa  pomonella  119 

Carrot 82,  188,  304,  648,  650 

Altringham    304 

Culture 305 

Early  French  short  horn,  304 

Early  horn  304 

Half  long  Dan  vers 305 

Long  orange   305 

Marketing  , 306 

Varum   Carri 447 


670 


PAGE. 

Gastanea  dentata   539 

Japonica    539 

pu  mi  la    539 

sativa 539 

Cauliflower 28,   82,    122, 

123,  188,  306,  648,  650 

Culture 307 

Early  Erfurt   307 

Snowball 307 

Marketing    310 

Celeriac   321 

Celery.  .82,  123,  188,  310,  648,  650 

Culture    313 

Giant  paschal   311 

Giant  white  313 

Golden  heart  311 

Golden   self   bleaching, 

311,  319 

Marketing 320 

New  culture 313 

Sandringham     313 

White  plume  310 

Census  report  on  cotton 55 

Verasus  avium  491 

vulgaris    491 

Cercospora  apii  158 

Ceratocystis   fimbriata    155 

Chamomile  447 

Charcoal    59 

Chards   264 

Cherimoya    531 

Cherokee  rose   34,     36 

Cherry....  118,  127,  132,  147, 

490,   648,  649 

Belle  magnifique   494 

Bigarreau    491 

Blackheart   491 

Black  tartarian  493,  494 

Downer's  late   492 

Duke    491,  494 

Early   Richmond    (Kent- 
ish)       497 

Elton   491,  492 

English  Morello, 

169,  490,  491,  494,  495 

Heart    491 

Kirtland's  Mary 493 

Late  Kentish  497 

Mahaleb 491 

May  duke    491,  495 

Mazzard 491 

Napoleon  (Royal  Ann), 

492,  493 

Plumstone  Morello   495 

Reine  Hortense    494 

Rockport 492 


PAGE. 

Sweet  Montmorency. 491,  495 

Marketing 497 

Chervil   188 

Chestnut,  V.   K...'. 367 

Chestnut  537,  648,  649 

American    539 

Burbank's  early  537 

Japan    539 

Marron  de  Lyon 539 

Spanish    539 

Chinese  yam    335 

Chinquapin 539 

Chionaspis  furfuirus 145,  147 

Chittenden,  F.  H... 133 

Chives    322 

Culture 322 

Chrysobothris  femorata  117 

Chrysophyllum  coenito  531 

Cichorium  endivia  339 

Citron   555 

Lemon    555 

Lyman   5L>5 

Orange   555 

Citrullus  vulgaris 440 

('Urns  acida   555 

aurantium 549 

bigaradia   549 

decumana  555 

Japonica  555 

linonium  553 

medica 555 

nobilis  549 

trifoliata    34 

Cives  188 

Clary 448 

( 'ladosporium  fulvum  154 

carpophilum    154 

Clisiocampa  Americana  118 

Cocoanut 496,  497,  648 

Cocas  nucifera   497 

Cold  frames 88,  92 

Lollards   648 

Composition    vegetables    and 

fruits  (Table)    648 

Composts   67,  68 

Conotrachelus  nenuphar  138 

Copper  carbonate 184 

sulphate  solution  184 

Coprinus  atramentarius  ..370,  371 

comatus 371 

Coriander 188,  448 

Coriandrum  sativum  448 

Corn. 120,  188,  323,  648,  650 

Adam's  extra  early 324 

Country     gentleman     or 

shoe-peg    324 


671 


PAGE. 

Crossby's  extra  early 323 

Culture 324 

Dent    323 

Egyptian   324 

Flint    323 

Husk 323 

Marblehead  324 

Marketing  324 

Nonesuch    324 

Pop    323 

Roslyn   hybrid    324 

Soft   323 

Stowell's  evergreen  324 

Sugar    324 

Sweet    323 

Triumph    324 

Corn   salaa    188,  328 

Corylus  avellana   540 

Cottonseed  meal  71 

Coville,  F.  V 26 

Cow  Peas    328,  648 

Black    329 

Clay  329 

Crowder  329 

Large  lady   329 

Mush   329 

Red    329 

Ripper    329 

Rice   329 

Sugar    329 

Small  lady    329 

Unknown 329 

Crates  102 

Crataegus  pyracantha  34 

Cress,  American    188,  329 

Garden   329 

Indian  377 

Winter    188,  329 

Crambe  maratima   418 

Crossing  and  hybridizing 195 

Cucumber..  126,  134,  140,  188, 

330,  648,  650 

Culture  331 

Early  cluster   330 

Early  frame  331 

Long  green 331 

Thorburn's   uver-bearing,  331 

White  spined  331 

Marketing  334 

C  urn  in  is  mclo   357 

anguria   331 

sativvs    330 

Cucurbita  pepo  407 

melopepo  428 

Currant...  144,  147,  205,  497,  650 
Cherry    499 


page. 

Fay    499 

Red  Dutch 498 

White  Dutch   498 

White  grape    499 

Versailles    499 

Victoria   499 

Marketing    499 

Cuttings    203,  206 

Custard  apple 531 

Cydonica  sinensis   633 

vulgaris ■  631 

Cynara  scolymus  261 

Daucus  carota    304 

Desmia  maculata  129 

Devil  wood   544 

Dewberry 490 

Austin    490 

Downings    490 

Lucretia   490 

Stubbs    490 

Marketing   490 

Diabrotica    vittata    125 

D ias pis  lanatus   145 

Diospyros  Kaki   605 

Virginiana    600 

Dioscorea  batatus   335 

alata    337 

satira     337 

aculeata    337 

Dill   448 

Diseases  (see  Plant  Diseases). 

Doryphora  decemlineata   126 

Dolichos 274 

Drainage  46 

Du  Breuil,  M 222,  231 

Earle,  F.  S 26 

Eggplant 151,  188,  337,  648 

Black  Pekin   338 

Culture  338 

Improved  N.  Y.   purple..   338 

Long  purple   337 

Marketing   339 

Elecampane  449 

Elliott,   Bishop   21 

Entomosporium  maculatum . . .  159 

Endive   188,  339,  650 

Broad  leaved  Batavian..   340 

Culture  340 

Long  green  curled  340 

Epicaute  vittata   118 

Eriobotryta  Japonica    529 

Eschallot    422 

Eugenia  j umbos 531 


672 


PAGE. 

Eupatorium  perfoliatum  445 

Exanthema    172 

Exoascus   deformans    159 

pruni    159 

Faba  vulgaris  (see   Vicia). 

Falconer,    Wm 361 

Fencing  34 

Fennel    188,  449 

Fertilizers    51 

Fidio  viticida   127,  128 

Fig  132,  499,  649 

Black  Ischia  502 

Blue  Genoa   501 

Brown    Turkey    501 

Brunswick 500 

Celestial    501 

Common  white   501 

Green   Ischia    502 

Lemon     501 

White  Ischia    502 

Marketing   502 

Ficus  carica 499 

Filberts    540,  648 

Cosford     540 

Lambert     540 

Purple 540 

White    540 

Fish,  dried  71 

Fceniculum  vulgare 449 

Forwarding  early  crops 86 

Frost  protection  17,  254 

Fragaria    637 

Fruits    456 

Fungi 107 

External     107 

Local   107 

Fungous  disease   107 

External     107 

Local   or  penetrating 107 

Fungicides   184 

Fusicladium  dendriticum   ....  162 

Garden  27 

Aspect     28 

Form  of   27,  30 

Inclination    28 

Laying  out    32 

Plan  of   31,  33 

Profits  of   85 

Situation   of    27 

Size  of 30 

Galloway,    B.    T 164 

Garden  calendar    651 

Garlic   188,  342 

Gherkin 331 


PAGE. 

Gooseberry 147,  205,  502 

Champion    503 

Chautauqua    503 

Downing's  seedling   503 

Houghton's  seedling   503 

Pale  red   503 

Red   jacket    503 

Marketing    503 

Grafting    211,  215 

Cleft    218 

Inarching 220 

Mode  and  time   :...   216 

Root     219 

Splice    217 

Whip   217 

Grafting  wax    216 

Grape  fruit   555 

Granadilla    531 

Grapes   130,  503,  648 

Agawan    514 

Arbor  system   512 

Berckmans    514 

Bertrand    514,  516 

Brighton    514,   516.  524 

Brilliant 514,  518,  519 

Catawba 505,  514,  516 

Caywood  system   511 

Champion    514 

Clinton    514,  516 

Concord     514,  516 

Cynthiana    514,  516 

Delaware... 514,   516,   525,  526 

Diana   514,  516 

Elvira     514,  516 

Fertilizers   for 506 

Flowers    514 

Gcetha    514 

Green    Mountain    ....514,  525 

Hartford     514 

Herbemont    514,   516,  522 

Horizontal  system   512 

Ives     514,  516 

Kniffin  system  511 

Lenoir    514,  516 

Lindley   514 

Missouri     514,  516 

Moore's  diamond. 51 4,  516,  520 

Moore's    early    514 

Niagara...   515,    516,    518,  520 

Noah    516 

Norton    515,  516 

Perkins    515,  516 

Peter  Wylie 515 

Salem     515 

Scuppernong 503,    515, 

516,  517 


INDEX. 


673 


PAGE. 

Training  and   pruning. . .  507 

Triumph     515 

Tender  pulp    515 

Thomas     515,  516 

Varieties    suited    to    sec- 
tions      514 

Warren     522 

Wilder    515 

Winchell     525 

Wine    516 

Worden     515 

Marketing    525 

Green,  E.  0 315 

Green,  Gen.  Nathaniel 545 

Greenhouses  94,  95 

Ground  nut  343 

Ground  pea 343,  648 

Culture    344 

Georgia  344 

North  Carolina   344 

Spanish    343,  344 

Tennessee  White    344 

Virginia    344 

Marketing    345 

Guano    77 

Guavas 527 

Apple     527 

Cattley    527 

Chinese    527 

Common     527 

Mexican    527 

Strawberry    527 

White  winter   527 

Glycyrrhiza  glabra  451 

Gypsum 58 

Hair   71 

Hares   113 

Halsted,  B.  D 157 

Hammon,  W.   W 650 

Haltica  chalybea 130 

Haven,    O.    P 528 

Hedge    35 

Eelianthus  tuberosus  265 

EeUothis   armigera    120 

Henderson.  Peter  26,  95,  313 

Herbs    443 

Heterodera  radicola  152 

Hibiscus  esculentus   378 

Eibiscus  sabdariffa 424,  531 

Eicoria  ovata   540 

pecan    541 

Hilgard,  Dr 55 

Hog  plum  531 

Holly,  American  37. 

Hop 347 

43 


PAGE. 

Horehound 450 

Horseradish    188,  345 

Hot-beds 88 

Howard,  Mr 146 

Humphray,  J.  E 170 

Humulus  lupulus   347 

Hybridizing  195 

Hyssop     188,  450 

Hyssopus  officinalis   450 

Implements    17 

Inarching   220 

Insects    107 

Angumois    moth    112,  113 

Apple-tree    tent    caterpil- 
lar    118 

Apple  root  blight   116 

Apple  root   borer 117 

Apple    worm     119 

Blister  beetle    118 

Boll  worm   120 

Cabbage  worm    121,  123 

Cabbage  louse    122 

Canker    worm    126 

Classification   of    108 

Codling  moth   119 

Colorado    potato    beetle..  126 

Corn  worm    120 

Cucumber  beetle 125 

Curculio    138 

Cut   worm    124 

Defoliating  108 

Grape  leaf  folder 129 

Grapevine  fidia    127 

Grapevine  flea  beetle 130 

Harlequin  bug   131 

Horn  worm  150 

June  beetles    132 

Leaf-footed  plant  louse..  133 

Melon   louse    133 

Melon  worm    134 

Nematode  root  galls 153 

Onion   fly    136 

Oyster-shell   bark  louse..  143 

Peach-tree  borer    134,  135 

Pea  weevils  151 

Plum  weevil    138 

Root  feeding  108 

San  Jose  scale 145,  148 

Sap   sucking    108 

Squash    bug    141 

Squash  vine  borer 139 

Tobacco  worm   150 

Tomato  worm    150 

Turnip  flea  beetle  141 

Weevils  151 

Woolly  aphis    114,  115 


674 


PAGE. 

Insecticides    184 

Inula  helenium   449 

Ipomaa  batatas 401 

Jamaica    sorrel    531 

Japan  medlar 529 

Japan  persimmon    (see  Per- 
simmon). 
Japan  plum  (see  Plum). 

Jerusalem   articnoke    188 

Jenkins,    J.    C 21 

Johnson  &  Stokes    26 

Juglans  regia 542 

cineria    543 

nigra    543 

Sieboldiana    543 

Kainit   70 

Kale  (see  Sea  Kale). 

Kerosene  emulsion 124 

Kerowater  184,  185 

Kin  kans   555 

Knapsack   sprayer    177 

Kohlrabi    348,  648 

Kcethen,  E.  L 258 

Kumquat   555 

Marumi    557 

Nagami    557 

Lachnostema  fusca   132 

La-stadia  Bidwelli 163 

Lactnra   satira    352 

Land,  amount  of  (Table) 647 

Lavender  188,  451 

Lavendula  vera  451 

Layering  200 

Leaf  mould   62 

Leek  188,  348 

Culture    349 

Scotch    champion    349 

Land  on  clay 349 

Large  Rouen  349 

Marketing    351 

Leggett's  powder  gun   176 

Lemon   546,  553,  646,  649 

Belair    555 

Eureka    555 

Genoa 555 

Imperial    555 

Japan  hardy   34 

Sicily    555 

Villa   Franca    555 

Lens  esculenta  351 

Lentil   188,  351 

Lepidium  sativum  329 

Leptoglo8su8  phpUopus  ,,.,..  133 


PAGE. 

Lettuce 28,   82,   123,  188, 

352,  648,  650 

Brown   Dutch    353 

Boston    market    353 

Butter    352 

Culture    354 

Cos    352 

Deacon     353 

Early   cabbage    352 

Grand  Rapids  354 

Hanson    354 

Henderson's  New  York..  353 

Mammoth    Salamander...  353 

Royal    cabbage    353 

White  Paris  Cos 353 

Marketing    357 

Ligustrum  amurense 35 

Lime    48,  54,  112 

Lime  and  salt  mixture 61 

Limes   555 

Mexican     555 

Persian    555 

Rangpur    555 

Tahiti     555 

Liquid   manure    67 

Liquorice    451 

Lodeman,  E.  G 508 

London    purple    184 

Loquat 529 

Lucuma  mammosa  531 

Lycopersicum  esculentum 432 

Macartney  rose  34,     36 

Macrocentrus  delicatus  120 

McGowan  nozzle  179 

Maramee  apple  531 

Mangifero  Indira  529 

Mangoes    529 

Apple  531 

Apricot    531 

Common    531 

No.  11    531 

Margoramia  hyalineata 134 

Manures 51,  56,  64,     66 

Marigold 188 

Marjoram 188,  357 

Pot    357 

Sweet 357 

Marl    58 

harruMum  vulgare 450 

Martin,   Logan   602 

Marketing    99 

Marlett,  Mr 146 

Massey,  W.  F 95 

Meat  scraps 71 

Medicinal  herbs  ,,.....,....  443 


675 


PAGE. 

Melissa  officinalis  445 

Melon   126,  134,  188,  357 

Canteloupe 357 

Water    440 

Mentha  piperita    452 

pulegium    452 

viridis    452 

Melicocca  bijuba   531 

Melittia  satyrini  form  is. .  .139,  140 

Mice   113 

Mint    188,  452 

Moles  113 

Monilia  fructigena   164 

Moore,  Jacob 520 

Morns  alba 533 

var  Tartarica    533 

var   venosa    533 

Japonica    533 

latifolia    533 

nigra    533 

rubra    533 

var  tomentosa   533 

Muck    61 

Mulching    241 

Mulberry 532 

Black 533 

Downing's  ever-bearing.  533 
Hick's  ever-bearing  ....  534 

Lampasas   533 

Multicaulis    533 

Nervosa 533 

Red    533 

Russian  533 

Stubb's 534 

White 533 

Munson,  T.  V 16,  518 

Murgantia  Mstrionica  131 

Muriate  of  potash 71 

Musa  Cavendishii  487 

orientvm    487 

paradissica   487 

sapientium 487 

Mushroom 361,  648 

Common    363 

Culture    371 

Deadly  amanita  366 

Fly  amanita   366 

Ink  cup  371 

Shaggy  371 

Muscadine 503 

Muskmelon   140,357 

Mustard 132,  188,  375 

Black    375 

White 375 

Mytilaspis  pomorum 143 


PAGE. 

Nasturtium  armoracia 188,  345 

officinalis   440 

Nasturtium  377 

Nectarines  535 

Boston   536 

Downton  :..  536 

Early  violet 536 

Elruge    536 

New  white  536 

Stanwick 536 

Night  soil 66 

Nitrate  of  potash   71 

Nitrate  of  soda  70,     71 

Nitrogen    70 

Nozzle,  Vermorel  178 

McGowan    179 

Nuts    536 

Ocymum  basilicum   272 

minimum   272 

Oedema    166,  167 

Okra  188,  378,  648 

Olives    544,  649 

Nevadillo  Bianco 545 

Picholine    546 

Cultivation  544 

Olea  Americana 544 

Europea   544 

Oleomargarine  refuse    71 

Onions 82,  188,  379,  648,  650 

Culture    381 

Extra  early  red 380 

Giant  rocca 380 

Large  red  Wethersfield. .  380 

Potato    380 

Prize  taker 380 

Silver  skinned    379 

Southport  white  globe..  380 

Red  Bermuda   379 

Top  381 

Tree    381 

Welsh    381 

White  Bermuda  379 

White  queen  380 

Yellow  Strasburgh   379 

Yellow  Danvers  379 

Marketing 385 

New  culture 381 

Oospora  scabies  167 

Orach   385 

Oranges 16,  133,  134,  546, 

648,  649 

Alligator 546 

Bitter  sweet 549 

Bitter  Seville 548 

Mandarins    549 


676 


PAGE. 

Phillip's  bitter  sweet 549 

Satsuma    550 

Sweet   549 

Bessie  550 

Boone 550,  553 

Centennial 550,  553 

Double  imperial  navel,  550 

Du  Roi 550,  553 

Early   oblong    550 

Enterprise  seedless 

550,  553 

Foster    550 

Hart's  late    551,  553 

Higley's  late   551 

Homosassa    551,553 

Imperial  blood   551 

Kid  Glove 550 

Jaffa 551,  553 

King    551,  553 

Majorca    551,  553 

Maltese  blood   551 

Maltese  egg 551 

Maltese  oval    551,  553 

May's  best   551 

Navel    553 

Nonpareil    551,  553 

Old  vini 551 

Paper  rind   551 

Parson  Brown  ....551,  553 

Pineapple    551,  553 

Sanguinea 551 

St,  Michael's  blood 551 

Sweet  Seville  551,  553 

Tangerine 548,  550 

Valencia  late 551 

Vinous 551 

Washington       navel 

(Bahia)    551 

Wild    547,  548 

Marketing    557 

Origan  inn    ma.rjoro.no.    357 

onites    357 

Osage  orange  34,  147 

Otaheite    531 

Packing  99 

Packing  house   100 

Paris  green   184 

Parsley 188,  386 

Champion  moss  386 

Celery  leaved 386 

Hamburg    386 

Market  gardener's 386 

Parsnip  82,  188,  388,  648 

Pa stin area  satira   388 

Passiflora  ednlis  531 


PAGE. 

Pawpaw  530,  531 

Pea 82,  120,  188,  390,  648,  650 

Alaska    390,  391 

Alpha    390,  391 

American    wonder. .  .390,  391 

Culture    391 

Champion   of   England..  390 

Daniel  O'Rourke 390,  391 

Eclipse   390 

Horsforl   390 

Large  white  marrowfat. .  390 

Market  garden   390 

Premium  gem 390,  391 

Pride  of  the  market 390 

Sugar   391 

Tom  Thumb   390,  391 

Yorkshire  hero 390 

Marketing 394 

Peanut  (see  Ground  Pea). 

Peach 132,  133,  147,  557,  649 

Alexander  562 

Amelia  568 

Angel    563,  569 

Baldwin's  late 567 

Bidwell's  late   568 

Bidwell's  early  568 

Beer's  smock 568 

Cabler  Indian  569 

Chinese  cling   565 

Columbia    564 

Countess   569 

Crawford's  early   .......  564 

Crawford's  late    564 

Cultivation  of  559 

Dorothy,  N 569 

Drying  559 

Eaton's  golden   567 

Early  cream 569 

Elberta 564 

Ever-bearing    566,567 

Ferdinand    569 

Florida  Crawford    569 

Foster 564 

George  IV 563 

General  Lee   568,  569 

Gibbons  569 

Grosse  Mignonne 563 

Hale    563 

Honey    570 

Imperial 570 

Jewel    570 

Kerr  Jessie 568 

Late  admirable    565 

Late  rareripe    565 

Lemon  cling  565 

Maggie 570 


677 


PAGE. 

Mountain  rose    568 

Oldmixon  cling   564 

Onderdonk    568,  570 

Pallas 570 

Peento    567,  570 

President    565 

Pruning 557 

River    563 

Sneed 568,  570 

St.   John    568 

Stump    564 

Suber   570 

Taber    570 

Thurber  570 

Tillottson    563 

Triumph    564 

Victoria   570 

Waldo  568,  570 

York   563 

Suitable      for      different 

sections   569 

Marketing 570 

Pear.. 117,  120,  133,  134,  144, 

147,  570,  648,  649 

Cultivating 572 

Gathering  the  fruit 5il 

Preserving  fruit 571 

Propagating 572 

Pruning 573 

Quince  sojck  597 

Oriental  type 599 

Standard  stock  598 

Suitable      for      different 

sections  599 

Varieties: 

Ananas  d'ete  581 

Anjou 597 

Archangel    586,  597 

Bartlett 578,  579,  599 

Belle   epine   Dumas...  588 

Beurre  d'Anjou 597 

Bloodgood   577,  578 

Bosc 575,  576 

Brandywine 580 

Clairgeau  585,  599 

Clapp's  Favorite 599 

Columbia    590 

Doyenne,  white  ...580,  581 
Doyenne  d'ete. 574,  575,  599 
Duchesse  dAngouleme, 

583,  597 
Duchesse  de  Bordeau.  588 
Easter  Beurre. 593,  594.  599 

Endicott    597 

Flemish  599 


PAGE. 

Garber    598,  599 

Gifford  597 

Glout  Morceau   588 

Henry  the  Fourth. 581,  582 

Howell    597,  598 

Jaminette   595 

Josephine  de  Malines, 

588,  589 

Kieffer 595,  596,  599 

Lawrence   ....592,  593,  599 

LeConte 594,  595,  599 

Louise  (Bonne  de  Jer- 
sey)     575,  577 

Lucrative   ....585,  586,  599 

Madeline    574 

Manning's   Elizabeth..   578 

M.kado 599 

Mme.  Von  Siebold....  599 

Parsonage 589 

Passe  Colmar   588 

Pound    591 

St.  Germain  591 

Seckel 584,  585,  597 

Selleck    582,  583 

Smith  599 

Sterling  587 

Summer  Doyenne   574 

Superfine    596,  597 

Van  Assche    583,  584 

Virgalieu  580 

Winter  Nelis..592,  593,  599 

Pecan 133,  147,  541,  648,  649 

Biloxi   542 

Centennial    542 

Colorado   542 

Louisiana   542 

Mexican   542 

Paper   shell    542 

Pride  of  the  Coast 542 

Stuart  542 

Texas  paper  shell 542 

Van  Deman  542 

Pennyroyal  188,  452 

Pepper 394,  650 

Culture    394 

Bell   - 394 

Cayenne 394 

Large  sweet  Spanish..  394 

Long    394 

Tomato    394 

Marketing 395 

Peppermint    452 

Persica  gratissima   531 

vulgaris 535,  537 


678 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Persimmon 147,  600,  648 

American: 

Daniel  Boone 600,  601 

Early  bearing   ....601,  602 

Early  golden 601 

Golden  gem 602,  603 

Hicks   603 

Kemper  604 

Kansas 604 

Marion  604 

Shoto    604 

Smeech    604 

Superior    603 

Japan    14,  605 

Costata  606,  607 

Hachiya  607 

Hyakume    607 

Okame   608 

Tanenashi 609 

Yeddoichi   609 

Yemon  609 

Zengi    610 

Marketing    610 

Propagating 604 

Peridromia  saucia   124 

Petroselinum  sativum 386 

Phaseolus  lunatus   274 

multiflorus    274 

vulgaris 274 

Phorbia  ceparium  136 

Phosphate  of  lime 73 

Insoluble 73 

Reverted    73,     74 

Rock  78 

Soluble   73,     74 

Phosphoric  acid  72 

Phosphates 73 

Photinia  Japonica   529 

Phyllanfhus  distichus 531 

Phyllotreta   vittata   141,  142 

Phytophthora  infestans  171 

Pickers'  tags  106 

Pieris  monuste    121 

protodice   121 

rapw   121 

Pimpinella  anisum  444 

Pimpha  annulipes  120 

Pindar   343 

Pineapple    611,  648 

Black    611 

Cayenne 611 

Egyptian  queen   611 

Havana    611 

Pernambuco 611 

Porto  Rico  611 

Red  Spanish 611 


PAGE. 

Ripley  queen 611 

Scarlet  key    611 

Strawberry 611 

Fertilizers  for    513 

Marketing    514 

Propagating  511 

Pinery    512 

Pipings    210 

Pisum  sativum 390 

Pits    88,  93 

Plant  diseases   107,  153 

Apple  scab   161,  162 

Celery  leaf  blight 158 

Cherry  rot   164 

Classification  of .  108 

Damping  off 158 

Die  back  of  orange 172 

Fire  blight  154 

Grape  black  rot 163 

Leaf  blight  154,  159 

Lemon  scab  173 

Orange  blight  171 

Peach  rosette   168 

Peach  rot 164 

Peach-tree  curl 159 

Peach  yellows 168 

Plum  black  knot 169 

Plum  pockets   169 

Plum  rot 164 

Potato   downy   mildew..  171 

Potato   leaf   blight 166 

Potato  rot    171 

Potato  scab 167 

Quince  rot   164 

Red  rust  155 

Sweet  potato  rot 155,  157 

Tomato  leaf  curl...   166,  167 

Plawrightia  morbosa    169,  170 

Plum... 27,  131,  144,  147,  514, 

535,    648,  649 

Babcock 628 

Bingham   517 

Caddo  chief   516,  628 

Chickasaw  ....484,  515,  516 

Columbia  517,  626 

Cumberland    516,  628 

Damson    518,  626 

De  Caradeuc    521,  628 

Duane   purple    518,  626 

Golden  beauty 515,  628 

Green  gage  518,  626 

Imperial  gage. 519,  520,  626 

Jefferson  518,  519,  626 

Lombard  519,  520,  626 

Lone  star 516,  628 

Missouri    517 


PAGE. 

Newman  516,  626,  628 

Prince's  yellow  gage, 

519,  520,  627 

Purple  egg 520 

Red  magnum  bonum . .  520 
River's  early  favorite.  521 
Washington... 520,  521,  627 
Wild  goose... 517,  627,  628 
Yellow   transparent, 

516,  628 

European   group    516 

Mariana  group  516 

Native  group 516 

Japan    14,  622 

Abundance  ...622,  626,  628 

Bailey 623 

Berckmans    623,  628 

Burbank..623,  624,  626,  628 
Chabot...622,  623,  625, 

626,  628 

Chase   622 

Georgeson   628,  629 

HattanKio 626 

Kelsey...624,   626,   627,  628 

Kerr 624,  628 

Louisiana    623,626 

Normand   623,  624 

Red  June 625,  627,  628 

Red  negate... 625,  627,  628 

Satsuma   625,  627,  628 

Sweet  Botan   623 

Yellow  Japan   623 

Marketing 628 

Propagation  and  cultiva- 
tion     15 

Suitable  for  Alabama...   626 

Florida 628 

Georgia  626 

Louisiana   627 

Mississippi  627 

North  Carolina 626 

South  Carolina 626 

Tennessee  626 

Texas   627 

Virginia    626 

Plusia  brassicce  123 

POMEGRANATE   • 630,    648 

Acid    630 

Dwarf 630 

Purple    630 

Sweet   630 

Violet 630 

Potash  69 

Potato 82,  120,  395  648 

Irish 118,  126,  133, 

151,  188.  395 


PAGE. 

Beauty  of  Hebron 396 

Burbank    396 

Carman  No.  1 396 

Culture    396 

Early  Essex 396 

Early  rose 396 

Early   Puritan    396 

Late  beauty  of  Hebron,  396 

Pearl  of  Savoy 396 

Peerless  396 

Pride  of  the  South....  396 

Rochester   396 

Rural  N.  Yorker  No.  2,  396 

Second  crop  399 

Triumph   396 

Marketing 401 

Sweet  133,  188,  401 

Barbadoes 401 

Bunch  yam 401 

Bush  or  vineless 401 

Culture    402 

Early  goluen  401 

Georgia  yam  401 

Hayman    401 

Jersey    401 

Pumpkin  yam 401 

Red  Brazilian  401 

Red  Nansemond 401 

Southern  queen 401 

Spanish  yam  401 

Sugar  (Creole)   401 

Sugar  yam  401 

Tennessee  yam 401 

Yellow  yam  401 

Marketing    407 

Privet 35 

Profits  of  gardening 85 

Propagation  of  plants....  186 

By  cuttings   203 

By  division 186,  197 

By  layering  200 

By  roots    200,  210 

By  seed  185 

Protoparse  Carolina 149,  150 

ceteris  150 

Pruning    222 

General  principles  of.  226,  231 

Implements  for   225 

To  improve  form 227 

Mode  of  operating 225 

To  reduce  fruitfulness. .  229 

To  renew  growth 228 

Summer  224 

Time  for 223 

At  transplanting 229 

Winter 223 


680 


PAGE. 

Prunus  Americana  516 

Armeniaca  483 

a i m list i folia    516 

cerasifera  516,  521 

domestica    516,  517 

hortiilona 516 

pumila    516 

triflora    516,  521 

Pumpkin 140,  188,  407,  648 

Cashaw 407,  408 

Purslane 188 

Psidium  yini jam  527 

Cattleianum    527 

lucidum    527 

l'iniica   ijraiiiititiii    630 

Pyracanth  34 

Pyrethrum   184 

Pyrus  communis   570 

mains    457 

Quince....  117,  144,  147,  631,  649 

Apple  shaped 632 

Angers  632 

Chinese    633 

Japan  38 

Orange  shaped   632 

Pear  shaped 632 

Portugal    632 

Radish 188,  408,  648,  650 

Black  Spanish 410 

Black  winter  410 

Chartier 410 

Culture    410 

Chinese       rose      colored 

winter    410 

Early  scarlet  short  top.  410 

French  breakfast 410 

White  turnip  rooted 410 

Yellow  summer   410 

Marketing    413 

Rampion    188 

Rape    188,  413 

Raspbeiujy 82,    144,    147, 

633,  648,  650 

Colossal  634 

Cuthbert 634,  635 

Fastolf 634 

Franconia 634 

French   634 

Golden  queen 634,  636 

Gregg    634,  635 

Orange    634 

Philadelphia    634 

Red  Antwerp 634 

Shaffer  colossal 634,  636 

Turner    634,  636 


PAGE. 

White  Antwerp 634 

Cultivation    633 

Propagation   633 

Marketing    636 

Raphanus  sativus  408 

Rhubarb  188,  414,  648 

Rheum    414 

Ribi  s  nigrum 498 

oxycanthoides  502 

ruorum    498 

Riley,  Dr 125 

Rhysopus  nigricans 157 

Root  cuttings   210 

Rosemary    188,  453 

Rose  apple  531 

Rosmarinus  officinalis  453 

Rosa  laevigata 36 

bracteata   36 

Rotation   of  crops 80,  111 

Ross,   B.   B 70 

Rue    188,  453 

Rubus  Canadensis  490 

Tdoeus    633 

occidentalis  633 

neglectans    636 

strigosus    633 

trivialis   490 

villosus  488 

Rumex   424 

Rumph,  S.  H 26 

Runners 198 

Rutabaga  132,  188,  648 

Rata  graveolens    453 

Sage  188,  453 

Salsify   188,  416,  650 

Salt  112 

Salvia  officinalis  453 

sclarea    448 

fannina  exiriosa  134,  135 

Saperda  caudida   116,  117 

Sapodilla  531 

Katun  ja 418 

Savory,  summer  and  winter, 

188,  418 
Savoy  cabbage  (see  Cabbage.) 

Schizoneura    lanigera 114,  115 

Schubler's  experiment 646 

Science,  what  it  has  done  for 

gardening  13 

Scorzonera   188 

Sea  kale  418 

Culture    419 

Dwarf   German   greens..  419 
Dwarf      green     curled 

Scotch    419 


681 


PAGE. 

Early  curled  Siberian...  419 

Norfolk   419 

Seeds  186 

Maturity  and  soundness.   186 

Preservation    194 

Time  required  to  germi- 
nate       192 

Time  of  sowing 188 

Time     when      sprouting 

(Table)   188,  650 

Vitality    .: 188 

Sesamum  orientale  445 

Shaddock 555 

Aurantium  555 

Blood    555 

Forbidden  fruit   555 

Hart   555 

Josselyn    555 

Mammoth  or  orange....   555 

Pernambuco  555 

Triumph    555 

Walter  555 

Shading    241,  242 

Shallot    188,  422 

Shell  bark  hickory 540 

Sitotroga  cereallela 113 

Slum  sisarvm    423 

Skirret    188,  423 

Slips   199 

Slingerland,    Prof 137 

Smith,  E.  F 169 

Soda   54,  70,     71 

Soils 39 

Absorptive      powers      of 

(Table)    646 

Argillaceous 39 

Calcareous    42 

Depth  of   43,     49 

Improvement  of 45 

Organic    42 

Sandy  40 

Texture  of 45,     48 

Solatium  melongena  var  oriyc- 

rum  337 

tuberosum    395 

Sorrel    188,  424 

Sour  sop   531 

Southernwood  454 

Spanish  lime   531 

Spearmint 452 

Spinach 28,  82,  188,  425,  648 

Bloomsdale    425 

Lettuce  leaved   425 

Long  standing  425 

New  Zealand  427 

Prickly  seeded    425 


PAGE. 

Round  leaved   425 

Savoy  leaved  425 

Winter 426 

Spinacia  oleracea 425 

Spondius  lutea   531 

Spraying    107,  174 

Spraying  calendar    184 

Spray  pumps  183 

Squash 120,  126,  140, 

188,  428,  648 

Bell  428 

Boston  marrow 428 

Cashaw    428 

Canada  crook  neck 428 

Culture    429 

Custard   marrow    429 

Hubbard    428 

Perfect  gem  428 

Summer  428 

Valparaiso    428 

Vegetable  marrow 428 

Winter  428 

Marketing    430 

Star  apple    531 

Starnes,  H.  N 26,  506,  508 

Strawberry 28,  82,  132, 

133,  637,  648,  650 

Bederwood 640,  642 

Belmont    642 

Brandywine    640,642 

Bubach  No.  5 640,  642 

Captain  Jack   640,  642 

Cloud  640,  642 

Clyde    642 

Crescent  640,  642 

Cumberland    640,  642 

Downing 640,  642 

Enhance  640,  642 

Enormous 642 

Eureka    640,  642 

Gandy  640,  642,  643,  644 

Greenville    640,  642 

Haverland..640,  642,  643,  644 

Hoffman   640,  642,  644 

Jessie  640,  641,  642 

Lady  Thompson   ....640,  642 

Meek   640,  642 

Michel   640,  642,  644 

Neunan  640,  642 

Parker  Earle   640,  642 

Sharpless    640,   642,  644 

Tennessee   642 

Wilson  640,  642,  645 

Cultivation  639 

Propagation 639 


682 


PAGE. 

Varieties  640 

Marketing    645 

Subsoil  50 

Suckers   198 

Sugar  apple  531 

Sugar  corn  (see  Corn). 

Sulphate  of  potash 70 

Sulphur   54 

Summer  cultivation  250 

Superphosphate  of  lime 78 

Swamp  muck 61 

Sweet  potato  (see  Potato). 
Swiss  chard  288 

Taber,  G.  L 26 

Tables  and  formulae,  useful.   646 

Tag  pickers  106 

Tamarind    531 

Tamarindis  Indica  531 

Tankage    71 

Tansy 188 

Tan  bark 62 

Tanyah    430 

Tarragon  188,  431 

Temperatures,  injurious  (Ta- 
ble)      650 

Terraces    29 

Tiles   ,     46 

Thyme    188, -431" 

Common 431 

Lemon   432 

Tobacco  stems  71 

Tomato....  120,  123,  151,  188, 

432,  648,  650 

Acme    432 

Atlantic  prize  432 

Beauty  432 

Buckeye  State 432 

Cardinal    432 

Chemin  market   432 

Culture    434 

Dwarf  champion   432 

Early  ruby  432 

Fordhook    432 

Golden  queen 432 

Green  gage 433 

Ignotum    433 

Lemon  blush  433 

Livingston's  beauty   433 

Livingston's  favorite 433 

Matchless   433 

Mikado    433 

Moore 433 

New  peach  433 

Paragon 433 

Perfection     433 


PAGE. 

Ponderosa    433 

Volunteer   433 

Marketing 436 

Tanacetum  vulgare 455 

Tetragonia  cxpansa  427 

Thorough   wort    446 

Thomas  slag  79 

Training    222,  233 

Tragopogon  porrifolium  416 

Transplanting    235 

Preparation  of  soil  for..   235 
Preparation  of  trees  for.   238 

Herbaceous  plants    239 

Tree  box  38 

Trees,  number  to  acre  (Ta- 
ble)      647 

Distance  to  plant  (Table)  648 

Trenching 50 

Tropceolum  via  jus  377 

minus    377 

Trucking 99 

Trueblood,   E.    H 603 

Tubers   197 

Turnip 82,  123,  132,  188, 

436,   648,  650 

Culture    438 

Early  white  flat  Dutch..  436 
w         Extra  early  purple  Milan  436 

*>~*%Golden  ball 437 

*■••     ^Purple  topped  Swede 437 

•*    •  '/Rutabaga    437 

Skirving's    improved 

Swede    437 

Swedes  437 

Sweet  German 437 

White  globe 436 

Yellow   Aberdeen    436 

Marketing   439 

Vaughan  Seed  Co 26 

Valerianella  olitoria 328 

Van  Buren,  J 21,  24 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L 73 

Vermorel  nozzle 178 

Verrucosis    of    sour    orange 

and  lemon   173 

Ticia  fana   274 

Vigna  cat  jaw/ 328 

Yi'tis  vinifera  503 

aestivalis 503 

Bourguiniana  503 

labrusca   503 

rotundifolia    503 


Waddel,  J.  P. 


21 


INDEX. 


C83 


PAGE. 

Walnut  542,  648,  650 

Black    543 

Butternut   543 

English    542 

Japan  543 

Madeira 542 

White  543 

Ward,  M.  A 21 

Watering   241,  243 

Water  cress  440 

Watermelon   133,  440,  648 

Arkansas  traveller 440 

Boss    440 

Dixie    441 

Florida  favorite  441 

Jones    441 

Kolb  gem  441 

Lone  star  443 

Mclver  sugar    441 

Pride  of  Georgia 443 

Rattlesnake  441 


PAGE. 

Scaly  bark  443 

Sugar  loaf   443 

Marketing 443 

Watts,  R.  L 26,  519 

Weeds,  most  harmful  (Table)  656 

Weights    and    measures 659 

Whale-oil  soap  solution 184 

Whitewash     646 

White   hellebore    184 

Wine    516 

Wood  ashes 57 

Wormwood   188,  455 

Roman 455 

Yew 38 

Zea  maize  car  anylaca 323 

var  everta 323 

var  identata  323 

var  indurata   323 

var  saccharatum  323 

var  vaginata  323 


A  Wonderful  Idea  for 
Stock  Owners. 


For  years  observant  stock  owners  have  known  that  sick  horses  have 
certain  ways  of  acting  in  certain  diseases.  If  a  horse  has  a  certain  disease 
he  will  stand  or  lie  down  in  a  certain  peculiar  way.  If  ten  thousand  horses 
have  that  disease,  probably  nine  thousand,  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine 
of  them  will  act  in  the  very  same  manner.  They  can't  talk,  and  it  is  their 
only  way  of  making  known  to  us  what  is  the  matter  with  them.  Now 
then,  if  we  knew  the  particular  attitude  which  horses  take  in  the  various 
ills  to  which  horse-flesh  is  heir,  we  would  be  able  to  tell  almost  as  soon  as 
we  saw  a  sick  horse  just  what  is  the  matter  with  him. 

A  few  years  ago  an  eminent  veterinary  surgeon  went  to  work  to  verify 
this  theory.  Everywhere  he  went  he  took  his  kodak,  and  whenever  he 
saw  a  sick  horse  he  took  a  snap-shot  at  it.  Photographs  of  people  do  not 
always  tell  the  truth,  for  photographers  have  learned  how  to  please  their 
customers;  but  a  horse  dosn't  care  whether  he  makes  a  pretty  picture  or 
not,  and  the  photographs  taken  by  this  surgeon  establish  beyond  doubt  the 
theory  on  which  he  was  working.  When  he  realized  this,  he  went  to 
work  to  arrange  the  entire  series  of  pictures  in  a  book  in  such  a  manner 
that  a  man  who  has  a  sick  horse  has  only  to  turn  the  leaves  of  the  book 
to  find  the  trouble.      This  great  book, 

The  Stock  Owner's  Adviser, 

By  C.  K.   RHODES,  V.  ■$., 

Is  not  only  a  comprehensive  work  on  the  treatment  of  stock,  but  it  is  also 
of  the  nature  of  an  invention — a  wonderful  invention,  which  promises  to 
revolutionize  the  stock  world.  The  idea  of  such  a  book  is  absolutely 
startling.  Whenever  a  horse-lover  hears  of  it  he  opens  his  eyes  wide  in 
utter  astonishment.  "Wonderful!"  he  exclaims.  "Must  have  it?  Of 
course  I  must  have  it.  That  doctor  has  got  the  idea,  and  I  want  his  book 
quick." 

j&     How  it  Works.    j& 

Suppose  you  have  in  your  home  a  copy  of  The  Stock  Owner's  Ad- 
viser. One  day  your  horse  becomes  ill.  You  stand  and  watch  him  a  few 
moments,  and  then  you  go  in  the  house  and  get  your  book.  And  then  you 
sit  down  on  a  log  and  watch  your  horse  again.  You  notice  the  various 
positions  into  which  he  gets.  Presently  you  will  notice  that  while  he 
shifts  into  several  positions,  there  is  one  position  into  which  he  always 


drops  back — a  position  which  seems  to  give  him  a  momentary  rest.  He 
lingers  in  this  position  for  awhile,  and  then  drops  in  several  other  atti- 
tudes, perhaps  in  rapid  succession;  then  he  comes  back  to  this  position 
which  gives  him  rest.  This  position  into  which  he  always  drops  back — 
the  position  which  seems  to  give  him  the  most  ease — is  the  prominent 
symptom.  Now  then,  you  open  your  book  and  turn  the  leaves  in  which 
horses  are  pictured  in  the  various  positions  into  which  they  get  when  they 
are  ill;  you  find  a  horse  occupying  the  same  position  your  own  horse  is 
occupying  be  ore  you.  This  picture  will  refer  you  to  a  description  of  the 
disease  of  which  the  prominent  symptom  is  photographed.  Then,  to  be 
sure  that  you  are  right,  you  turn  to  this  description  and  you  find  all  the 
symptoms  fully  described,  and  the  prominent  symptom  (that  is,  the  posi- 
tion into  which  the  horse  always  drops  back,  and  which  gives  him  the  most 
ease)  is  fully  set  forth.  Now  you  know  that  your  horse  has  the  disease 
here  described,  and  you  have  nothing  to  do  but  to  read  the  instructions 
concerning  the  remedy,  and  go  to  work.  You  can  cure  your  horse  as  well 
as  a  veterinary  surgeon.  Like  the  working  of  a  problem,  there  is  but  one 
answer,  and  when  you  get  the  answer  you  know  it.  There  is  hardly  a  pos- 
sibility of  a  mistake. 

But  this  great  work  does  not  treat  of  the  horse  only.  It  is  a  complete 
stock  owner's  text-book.     It  describes  and  offers  remedies  for  the 

Contagious  Diseases  of  Sheep,  Cattle, 
Swine,  and  Dogs. 

There  is  no  question  which  a  man  can  ask  when  his  horse  is 
sick,  or  when  he  has  just  bought  a  cow,  or  when  his  Iambs  begin 
to  gambol  on  the  lawn,  or  when  his  hogs  refuse  to  fatten,  or  when 
he  has  just  come  into  possession  of  the  best  doggy  in  the  world, 
that  this  book  will  not  answer. 

To  buy  this  book  is  to  invest  in  a  life  insurance  policy  on  your  stock. 
It  is  the  stock  owner's  great  protection  against  loss  by  disease. 

PRICES— Style  A.  Extra  fine  cloth,  beautiful  design  stamped  in  ink, 
more  than  130  engravings,  $2.50.  Style  B.  Half  morocco,  fine  English 
cloth  covering  half  of  each  side,  leather  corners,  stamped  in  gold,  marbled 
edges,  more  than  130  engravings,  elegant  and  substantial,  $3.50.  Style  C. 
F  ne  leather,  $5.00. 

A  FORTUNE   FOR  AGENTS. 

Here  is  a  book  that  will  be  wanted  in  every  home  where  there  is  a 
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and  ability  who  want  to  make  money  are  invited  to  write  us  at 
once  for  full  particulars  about  this  great  opportunity. 

B.  F.  JOHNSON  PUBLISHING  COMPANY, 

RICHMOND,  VA. 


